Rwbaa, Igoo, M. Post, Ilww Rwbaa, M. Xodu, K. Bagra, B. Rwbaa, T. Rwbaa, N. Aado and D. Keenaa (2009). Galo-English Dictionary, with English-Galo Index [International Edition]. Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, Galo Welfare Society. more

Galo Welfare Society Galo-English Dictionary with English-Galo Index <<< International Edition >>> Not to be disseminated electronically without prior permission of the Galo Welfare Society Compiled by the Galo Language Development Committee: `Igoo Rɨbaa `Miilɨɨ `Ɲodu Toomoo Rɨbaa Mark W. Post `Kenjum `Bagra Notoo Aado `Ilɨɨ Rɨbaa `Bomcak Rɨbaa Dambom Keenaa Under Chairmanship of: Tadoo Karloo Published by: Galo Welfare Society Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India First International Edition © 2009 Galo Language Development Committee All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Galo Language Development Committee. “Permission” to store and use electronic copies is hereby extended to local and international scholars under “fair use”. Permission to further disseminate electronic copies is not extended to this group. Violation of the conditions stated above shall be in breach of Article 8 of the World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty. Prosecution in accordance with Indian and International Copyright Laws and Treaties would be pursued. ii Contents Preface to the International Edition Foreword Introduction Acknowledgements About Galo Language Orthography and Alphabetical Order How to Write in `Galoo Ennam (using an IPA-based script) Abbreviations How to Read an Entry Galo-English Dictionary English-Galo Index Appendix: Galo Lexicon and Grammar References iv vi vii x xi xiv xvi xxiv xxiv 1-326 327-444 445-456 457 iii Preface to the International Edition This is an “international” edition of the Galo-English Dictionary. The “local” edition of this dictionary was published by the Galo Welfare Society (GWS) in early 2009. The greater part of 500 hard-bound copies of the local edition are currently being distributed free-of-charge to all schools in Galodominated areas of Arunachal Pradesh, as part of an integrated language development project being spearheaded by the Galo Language Development Committee, also with GWS sponsorship. Since the chances of international linguists being able to get their hands on one of these copies are, accordingly, pretty remote, it was decided to make an “international” edition available via .pdf. This is that document. For this international edition, the majority of the text is identical to the local edition. The major change is that all text in Galo language is presented in an IPA-based orthography rather than in the exclusively Roman-based Galo orthography known as `Galoo Ennam (Galo Script). The decision to produce a separate IPA-based version was primarily made in order to make the presentation more accessible to linguists. Otherwise, discussions in a few places have been adapted to make them more precise and/or technical from a linguist’s perspective, but in most cases the relatively less technical perspective of the original is retained here. Readers interested in a more detailed discussion of many of the points raised herein are referred to A Grammar of Galo (Post 2007). Whether local or international, it must be said that this is a very “preliminary” edition. “Preliminary” in two senses: first, in the sense that a relatively small percentage of the information that could have been included is actually included here (for example, no etymological information is included, although a good amount has been recorded). Second, in the sense that a fair number of items which are included, such as vocabulary for flora and ritual objects, receive no better identification or explanation than “variety of x” – which tells the reader next to nothing. The fact is that some things just don’t get done quickly, particularly in a part of the world that lacks general reference works of any reasonable scale or reliability (no large-scale, reliable ethnographic studies, no compendia of flora and fauna – not even a recent and reliable map). Since “completion” at this level of detail is expected to take another several years at least, it was decided to release this albeit “preliminary” edition rather than simply sit on what data we do have and let it be of use to no one. iv One sense in which this is not a preliminary edition is in the treatment of data. While we can’t be certain that no mistakes remain, data herein have been checked and re-checked for the Lare dialect of Galo (and for this dialect only) by several expert speakers working together over a long period of time. So, with the usual caveats that mistakes inevitably creep in and linger, we believe that there is good consistency and accuracy here in terms of those dimensions of the language that we have been able to treat. Lastly, and on a somewhat more sensitive note: copyright infringement is a serious problem in India, as it no doubt is in many other places in the world. This dictionary has been produced by the Galo community, for the Galo community, and we are concerned that control over its fate should remain with the Galo community. As I mentioned above, the majority of hard copies from the first print run are being distributed to schools free of charge, although some have also been sold to the general public. Copies from the second print run, which is scheduled for August 2009, will primarily be sold. All proceeds from sales of both the first and second print runs will be used to fund efforts by the Galo Language Development Committee in teacher training, materials development and production, and distribution. Local demand for this dictionary is currently very high, and it would be extremely easy for an unscrupulous individual with a .pdf to publish an identical edition for personal profit, and go entirely unpunished (as has happened in similar situations in the past). The GWS was so concerned about this possibility that it was initially decided not to release electronic copies of this dictionary at all. However, in the interest of furthering the research of legitimate scholars who could not be expected to be able to obtain a hard copy, it was finally decided to release this “international” edition via .pdf, free of charge, only to individuals who undertake not to disseminate it further. If you possess this document, you are either someone who has made this undertaking or you have received it in violation of the aforementioned terms. In either case, you are asked to please respect the wishes of the Galo community and not to disseminate electronic copies of this dictionary further (data contained herein, however, may be extracted, quoted and used freely). If this works out, there will be future, expanded releases of this dictionary. If it doesn’t, there won’t be, and I won’t have any control over that. Thanks for your understanding. Mark W. Post Melbourne, Australia v Foreword The Galo Welfare Society extends its deep gratitude and indebtedness to Dr. Mark W. Post for his contributions in bringing out this Galo-English Dictionary in its present form. Perhaps, it may never have been possible without Dr. Post to achieve the present level of accuracy, inclusive of the minutest details and meanings of words in the Galo language, and credit must go to him for his personal initiative and compilation through research work, albeit, with the patient and generous assistance of many members of our Galo Society. In this context, we also wish to extend sincere our sincere gratitude to `Igoo Rɨbaa and `Ilɨɨ Rɨbaa for their equally sincere and dedicated effort, and for having spent literally hundreds of hours of volunteer labour ensuring that this Dictionary gave as accurate and consistent a representation of the Galo language as possible. The preservation of Galo culture rests with the preservation of Galo language, and thus, the contribution of these individuals and the other Compilers of this dictionary will always be acknowledged in posterity for this contribution to the preservation of Galo culture and identity. The Galo Welfare Society, on behalf of the Galo community, highly appreciate and acknowledge the dedication, hard work and love of Dr. Mark W. Post, `Igoo Rɨbaa, `Ilɨɨ Rɨbaa and the other Compilers of this Dictionary, and will always cherish their significant contribution to Galo welfare. Er. Tomo Basar General Secretary Galo Welfare Society Shri Huzar Lollen, IAS President Galo Welfare Society vi Introduction This volume is the first ever large-scale Dictionary of the Galo language of Arunachal Pradesh, North East India. It is, however, a very preliminary work. Official recognition of the Galo language has only been completed in 2008, and the first Galo language textbooks will only be introduced into schools in Galo-dominated areas of Arunachal Pradesh in 2009. Both this Dictionary and the mentioned textbooks are based on Galo Script, which itself was only finalized and adopted by the Galo Welfare Society in 2008. All of the Compilers of this Dictionary have completed whatever work they could in their spare time only, trying to approximate in the space of only two or three years what teams of professional lexicographers often spend ten to fifteen years to complete with full dedication. Accordingly, there are certain to be mistakes herein, and/or other points which are unclear and should have been clarified, for which the Compilers can only apologize in advance and beg for our readers’ patience and understanding. A serious difficulty which we are only beginning to address concerns dialect variation within the Galo language. While most of the Compilers of this Dictionary speak `Laree Galo, the variety of Galo spoken mainly around the Baasar area, there is in fact a large number of Galo dialects and subdialects, which are spoken widely throughout West Siang District, Upper Subansiri District, and East Siang District in Arunachal Pradesh. A full survey of all Galo dialects would take many years of constant effort, and while we have begun this survey, it is nowhere close to completion at the present time of writing. Therefore, we have chosen to base this Edition of the Dictionary on the `Laree dialect of Galo, although we have also included a certain number of Puugoo Galo words where this was possible. We intend to expand the number of Galo dialects that we are able to include in the dictionary; however, we hope to do this in a systematic manner. Therefore, it will take additional time and we must beg apologies from speakers of Galo whose pronunciation and vocabulary is not wellrepresented in this Edition. Other challenges relate to the structure of Galo language, which is quite different from the structures of English, Hindi, Chinese, or other languages with long histories of writing and dictionary-making. While in English or Hindi, for example, it is relatively easy to identify most meaning-units as “words” and list them in dictionaries, in Galo and other Tani languages it is vii often difficult to do so. For example, consider the Galo word `immen ‘stroll’. The first part of this word comes from innam ‘to go’, while the second part is a suffix -`men which means ‘play’ or ‘do something playfully’. So, while it is easy to list English ‘play’ as a word in a dictionary, what to do with -`men? It isn’t a “word”; however, failing to list it in a Galo dictionary would make the dictionary incomplete. This is only one of hundreds of similar problems encountered, for which in some cases only partial solutions have been found up to now. Despite the incomplete and partial nature of this Dictionary, we have decided to publish this First Edition for one major reason: we are running out of time! Only forty or fifty years ago, one could travel to a Galo village and find that every single man, woman and child in the village spoke fluent Galo, and learned and used other languages (such as Assamese, English and Hindi) as second languages for education, work, government purposes, and general communication with outsiders. Nowadays, however, we find that these “major” languages are replacing Galo in the speech of many Galo people. Even in so-called “interior” villages now, it is possible to find Galo children and young adults who speak fluent English and Hindi, but who can barely speak Galo at all. What is the future of the Galo language under such conditions? Children who do not speak Galo cannot teach Galo to their children, pure and simple. Unless parents can teach Galo language to their children, without additional support, the Galo language will die. We find this situation intolerable, and cannot sit back and do nothing about it. We must do whatever we can. With these facts in mind, we have begun a community-based project of Galo dictionary-writing, script and textbook development, and language research for one major reason, and that is to preserve the Galo language. That means: we wish to honour the legacy of our ancestors and enable future generations to appreciate Galo language and culture. But we also wish to celebrate what we believe is truly a rich and beautiful language on its own terms. The world is changing quickly, and Galo children can and should continue to advance in society by learning “major” languages such as Hindi and English. But this does not mean that it is necessary or even advisable for Galo children to give up their mother tongue. It is possible, and preferable, to have both. By teaching children the richness of Galo language, Galo children will be able to understand much of the way of thinking of a Galo ancestor, and will be able to see the world in a unique and irreplaceable way. We believe that this will help rather than hinder their cognitive development, as studies by international psycholinguists are now beginning to show. We believe that this will also help Galo children to viii develop a coherent personal and social identity, which is both modern and yet rooted deeply in longstanding tradition, and help avoid the social problems of identity loss and disenfranchisement which are common in so many other places. We cannot force Galo children to maintain their language and culture. But up to now, the fact is that many Galo children have not had a choice. How can a child who is sent to a boarding school in a distant land, who spends most of his childhood away from his home village, be expected to learn his or her mother tongue? We must give them and all Galo children the choice to maintain their language if they choose, by teaching it to them directly and, when that is not possible, by providing them with materials so that they can learn, or supplement their knowledge, by themselves. We hope that this Dictionary will constitute a solid first step in that direction. Galo Language Development Committee Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh ix Acknowledgements This book would not have been possible without support and aid of various kinds (financial, logistical and moral) from a large number of people and organizations over a long period of time. The Galo Welfare Society sincerely acknowledges the contribution of Er. Gaken Ete, Chief Engineer (WRD), Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh, Itanagar for sponsoring the publication and printing of this First Edition of the GaloEnglish Dictionary. GWS while thanking Er. Gaken Ete wishes him all success and happiness in life. Er. Tomo Basar General Secretary Galo Welfare Society Shri Huzar Lollen, IAS President Galo Welfare Society In addition, the Compilers would like to sincerely thank the following: Toomoo Baasar, Moogii Oorii, Kɨɨto `Sooraa, Takoo Daabww, Toomoo Rɨbaa, Boraa `Əətə, `Tabom Baam, `Tumkə `Bagrə, Jiken Rɨbaa, Bomtoo Rɨbaa, Idam `Bagrə, Gumjum Haidar, Puutɨk `Ɲokɨr, `Tajap Keenaa, `Rokom Baado, Huujar `Lolen, `Gəəyum Paaduu, `Teejum Paaduu, Jumbom `Koyu, `Dooɲaa Rɨbaa, Jarjum `Əətə, Karken Ciram, `Marɲaa Ciram, Martoo Rɨbaa, Isaac Modi, Dakkar Gaaraa, and R. M. W. Dixon, Alexandra Aikhenvald, and Randy LaPolla at The Research Centre for Linguistic Typology at La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia. Lastly, but, in fact, most importantly, we all thank: All members of the `Galoo community of Arunachal Pradesh, who have kept your language alive for us to learn. This book is for you, and for your children. x About Galo language Galo is a language of the Tani branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family, one of the largest and most diverse language families in the world. Galo may be spoken by anywhere from around 80,000 to 130,000 people in some form, mainly in the West Siang, Upper Subansiri and East Siang Districts of Arunachal Pradesh, North East India. Galo people have close cultural, linguistic and social connections with other Tani tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, notably Hills Miri in the West, Tagin in the Northwest and Adi in the East, among others. According to Sun (1993; 2003) and Post (2007), Galo is to be classified as a Western Tani language, with its closest linguistic relations to Nishi and related tribes. Galo has also been referred-to as “Adi Galo”. Adi and Galo people have traditionally shared close cultural connections, are often exposed to one another’s languages, often make efforts to learn one another’s languages, and therefore can often understand each other relatively easily. However, in their pure forms, Galo and Adi are not mutually intelligible and are to be identified as distinct languages on these grounds. In addition, one often finds the spelling “Gallong”. This is in fact an exonym, which is not used by Galo people in general. In 2008, the State Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh approved recognition of Galo as an Official Language of areas of Arunachal Pradesh in which Galo speakers predominate, with a distinct grammar and script. In early 2009, the International Standards Organization (ISO 639-3) also recognized the existence of Galo language, and recorded the official name of the language as “Galo”. This book is a Dictionary of that language. Dialects of the Galo language Galo is a single language. By this it is meant that all Galo people can understand each other when speaking Galo without great difficulty. However, Galo has several dialects. This means that from region to region, village to village, and clan to clan, Galo people speak slightly differently. Sometimes differences are in pronunciation, sometimes in the actual words used, sometimes in the meaning of those words, and sometimes in the way they are used (i.e., the grammar). This makes it very difficult to design a “unified” Galo dictionary. If words like hottum ‘bear’ and horə ‘wild boar’ are also pronounced as sottum and sorə, does that mean that the words should be given twice – once in the h section and once under s? Or should xi they be written with an oblique hottum/sottum or sottum/hottum? In that case, should they go under the h section or the s section? And how can a dictionary user whose Galo is not perfect understand which form is the one they should use? Is it all just random? The important thing to note is that these differences are not in fact random. Someone who says sottum does not usually say horə, and someone who says hottum does not usually say sorə. Instead, expert speakers speak in relatively consistent patterns, and these consistent patterns make up the Galo dialects. We think that these patterns are very important, and can teach us much about the history and heritage of Galo people and about the richness and diversity of Galo culture. Therefore, we have decided in this dictionary to not simply randomly include whatever words we could without regard to dialect, but instead to carefully identify words according to the Galo dialects that we know. The problem is that not all Galo dialects have been comprehensively studied at this point, because this is a project which requires several years of continuous work. Therefore, instead of misrepresenting Galo dialects which we don’t know well, we have based this Dictionary on the `Laree dialect of Galo as it is mainly spoken around Baasar area, simply because it is the variety of Galo which we know best. In using `Laree as a standard pronunciation, we do not mean to imply that `Laree is “better” or “more correct”. However, we need to have a basic reference variety against which to measure all other varieties, and for this purpose we have chosen the variety which we know best. We have also tried to include as much as we could of the Puugoo dialect of Galo, mainly as it is spoken around the Aaloo area. Wherever a Puugoo form is entered in the dictionary, it is identified as (P). Wherever a `Laree form is contrasted with a Puugoo form, it is identified as (L). A very small number of forms from the Dapo-Rɨɨjoo/Baarɨɨ-Rɨɨjoo area which are not found in either `Laree or Puugoo dialects are also included here. They are identified as (NW) (for “North-Western”). However, please note that the only fully comprehensive work contained here has been conducted on `Laree only, and if a form occurs with no identifier, it should not be automatically assumed to be pan-Galo (despite that this is usually, in fact, the case). Similarly, the examples are almost exclusively written using `Laree pronunciation, again in the interest of accuracy and consistency keeping in mind the limitations of our knowledge and experience. We hope to produce a more precise, inclusive, expanded edition of this dictionary in xii the future, and we invite any interested potential volunteers to join us in this effort. Goŋku Agom Goŋku Agom, or Galo classical/ritual/poetic language, is a very important part of Galo heritage, but it is also something which requires much time and effort to be put into research. Up to this point, we have only been able to compile a very small number of Goŋku words, with only very basic definitions. We hope very much to include more such words in future editions, although since accurate representation of Goŋku Agom requires extensive and detailed knowledge and experience, it is our sincere hope that people who know far more than we do about Goŋku Agom will take the initiative to produce materials of their own for the benefit of everyone. xiii Orthography and Alphabetical Order This International Edition of the Galo-English Dictionary is written in an IPA-based practical orthography. It differs in several ways from the Galo Script (`Galoo Ennam) which has recently been adopted by the Galo community to write Galo language, but also incorporates a number of its features. The main differences beween `Galoo Ennam and the orthography employed here are the consonants ŋ and ɲ, and vowels ɨ and ə, which are written as q, x, w and v in `Galoo Ennam, respectively. The reason for reverting to IPA norms for this International Edition is that most international users of a Galo-English dictionary will already be familiar with IPA-based orthographies, and are likely to find radical departures from IPA norms jarring and cumbersome for their own research purposes. However, some non-IPA aspects of `Galoo Ennam are also employed here, for a variety of reasons. First, affricates c and j are chosen to write IPA ʨ and ʥ, as in `Galoo Ennam (IPA palatal glide j is, accordingly, written as y). This follows the Americanist tradition relatively closely, and avoids having to write out geminate affricates – which are common in Galo – using sequences of digraphs. For example, peccaa ‘fool’ is written for IPA peʨʨaa. It has also been decided to retain the Galo system for marking tones, which is quite different from most standard practices. Namely, an accent marker “`” marks only words specified for a “Tense” tone (phonetically low or rising-falling, depending on word structure/length), while words specified for a “Plain” tone (phonetically high and level) are left unmarked; in more general practice, tone symbols would be carried in both cases, and marked over the rhyme of a tone bearing unit. For many purposes, this will not matter much; for example, users interested in simply determining the tonal category of various lexemes (as for comparative purposes) will be able to find these categories accurately distinguished in this Dictionary, despite the non-standard representation. This is because all lexemes, most affixes, and most functional words in Galo are specified for one of the two mentioned tones; only a handful of articles and postpositions (and possibly some affixes) are tonally unspecified. However, for some more advanced applications, users may find this representation disappointing; for example, Plain words are not formally distinguished from morphemes or words which are unspecified for any tone. Accordingly, determining the behaviour xiv of the latter forms will largely be a matter of deduction (by examining tone spreading behaviour in sentence examples). Similarly, the surface phonetics of Galo tones, which interact with other prosodic features such as rhythmic accent and syllable weight, are severely underdetermined by this representation. Nevertheless, since the majority of users of this Dictionary will be mainly interested in lexical rather than sentence-level-prosodic information about Galo, and since further alteration of the representation given herein would have required a disproportionate expense of resources and energy, it was decided that the simplified `Galoo Ennam representation of tones would be retained. A final and quite serious drawback of the orthography used in this Dictionary concerns non-representation of breathy versus glottal (stop) onsets to otherwise vowel-initial words. This is an extremely important aspect of Proto-Galo prosody which is unfortunately completely ignored in the representation given here. The reason for this is that prosodic onset contrasts are robustly retained in only a few Galo dialects; in several other Galo dialects, including the `Laree dialect which forms the primary reference point for this Dictionary, prosodic onset contrasts have decayed to the point that even expert speakers are not able to recognize or reproduce the relevant distinctions. One is hopeful that a future edition of this Dictionary will be able to take greater account of more conservative Galo dialects which robustly retain the proto-prosodic onset contrasts, but we are not yet at that stage. For the alphabetical order used in this Dictionary, it was decided to follow the devānagāri sort order which is already in widespread use throughout the Himalayan region, and indeed throughout most of East, South, and Southeast Asia. Devānagāri order provides just as insightful an organization of the phonemes of Galo as it does the phonemes of many other Asian languages (particularly, those of Indic and Tibeto-Burman stock). Sort Order Vowels: a i u e o ɨ ə Consonants: k g ŋ c [ʨ] j [ʥ] ɲ t d n p b m y r l s [s ~ ɕ] h Tones: 1) “Plain” *or* unspecified: (unmarked) 2) “Tense”: ` xv Orthographic conventions In this section we explain the orthographic conventions of `Galo Ennam – which are retained in this International Edition – as they relate to Galo prosody and morphophonology. For more detailed discussions of most topics presented here, please refer to Post (2007). Long and short sounds (consonants and vowels) Unlike in English, Hindi or Assamese, Galo has long and short sounds in both consonants and vowels. In Galo Script, short sounds are symbolized using a single letter. Long sounds use two letters: a i u e o ɨ ə k g ŋ c j ɲ t d n p b m y r l aa ii uu ee oo ɨɨ əə kk gg ŋŋ cc jj ɲɲ tt dd nn pp bb m yy rr ll panam ‘to cut’ jinam ‘to give’ unam ‘to boil’ `henam ‘to pull’ `onam ‘to fall’ ɨnam ‘to pound’ ənam ‘to spread’ `ako ‘old’ `ago ‘warm/hot’ aŋo ‘strange’ `aco ‘breast’ `ejə ‘clothing’ aɲi ‘elder sister’ paanam ‘to hover’ piinam ‘to prick’ uunam ‘to be awake’ `heenam ‘to bear fruit’ oonam ‘to tend’ ɨɨnam ‘to slither’ əənam ‘to decant’ `cokko ‘chin’ yəggoo ‘circle’ aŋŋo ‘five’ `accoo ‘quiet; slow’ ejjum ‘wring out’ aɲɲii ‘little bit’ `ato ‘grandfather’ etto ‘wrote’ `yaddəm ‘when’ `yadə ‘how much’ `giinam ‘to transport’ `ginnam ‘to wipe’ `apii ‘darling’ tabə ‘snake’ namə ‘house’ `ayo ‘night’ parə ‘will chop’ alo ‘salt’ appii ‘four’ tabb ə ‘it’s a snake’ `nammə ‘facial hair’ `ayyom ‘at night’ narrə ‘will borrow’ alloo ‘tomorrow’ xvi s h ss `isi ‘water’ ohoo ‘rope; cane’ `iss ə ‘it’s water’ It is also important to note that Galo has vowel length at the ends of words. Although it may be difficult to notice in some cases, this is an important part of the Galo sound pattern: alo ‘salt’ aɲi ‘elder sister’ alə ‘good’ aloo ‘bone’ (or aloo ‘day’) alii ‘seed’ aləə ‘forepaw’ Some important properties which differentiate long and short vowels are: 1) word-final short vowels usually disappear when followed by another word, whereas long vowels don’t: Abo Tanii aloo pookoo → → Ab Tanii ‘The Father of Humankind’ aloo pookoo ‘skeleton’ 2) word-final short vowels which are preceded by only two letters/segments (not three) disappear and cause a preceding consonant to geminate (double) when followed by certain grammatical words such as ə and `əm, whereas long vowels don’t: aɲi + ə alə + ə alii + ə aləə + ə → → → → aɲɲ ə ‘it’s elder sister’ all ə ‘it’s good’ alii ə ‘it’s a seed’ aləə ə ‘it’s a forepaw’ Special phonological processes in Galo Consonant voice copying within words In Galo, most words end either with a vowel (such as ə), a nasal consonant (m or n), a liquid consonant (only r) or else with a voiceless consonant (k or p). When word roots ending in a voiceless consonant form new words, the voiceless consonant is sensitive to the following root and generally changes. That is, if a voiceless consonant has a voiced consonant to its right, it will also become voiced: xvii alak ‘arm/hand’ ərap ‘door’ → → lagbor ‘palm of the hand’ `rabgo ‘doorway’ Consonant place copying within words Roots ending in nasal consonants m or n also change when they are used to form new words. They move to the place of articulation (location in the mouth) of the following consonant. For example: `igin ‘basket variety’ → adin ‘meat’ → `Siyom ‘river name’ → `giŋgɨɨ ‘`igin basket spine’ dimpaa ‘chopping block’ Yoŋgoo ‘river name’ Total consonant copying within words (-nnam verb forms “1” and “2”) Certain roots which appear to end in -n in fact fully copy any following consonant. If they occur at the end of a word, they are pronounced k. If they are followed by a vowel, they are pronounced g. These are roots which once ended in *-t or *-s (they still do in Adi and Mising), but which have changed in Galo. Other roots which appear to end in -n in fact do end in -n, and these roots do not assimilate. Since it is not possible to differentiate a “real” and a “copied” -n in the citation forms of verbs, we have adopted a convention of marking the non-copying roots with a (1), and the copying roots with a (2). For example: cinnam (1) ‘to pick’ → → → → `cinduu ‘picking’ cinto ‘picked’ `cinlɨɨ ‘want to pick’ cinrə ‘will pick’ `cidduu ‘throwing a spear’ citto ‘threw a spear’ `cillɨɨ ‘want to throw a spear’ cirrə ‘will throw a spear’ cinnam (2) ‘to throw a spear’ → → → → xviii Vowel deletion at ends of words As we saw above, short vowels are usually deleted when they are followed by some other word. According to this pronunciation, they are not written in this dictionary, except in the main entry: Abo Tanii alo go `ato-`ayo aci-abo alə `duu `hɨɨnə ə → → → → → → Ab Tanii ‘The Father of Humankind’ al go ‘some salt’ `at-`ayo ‘grandparents’ ac-abo ‘mature man’ al `duu ‘fine’ `hɨɨn `ə ‘it’s a tree’ How to read and write Galo tones Recognizing and writing tones is one of the most challenging aspects of writing in Galo. However, it is also necessary, since hundreds of Galo words are differentiated by tone only. Plain words are spoken with a normal, level pitch; they are unmarked in Galo Script. Tense words are spoken with a rising-falling pitch; they are marked by a symbol ` at the beginning of a word. 1 For example: Plain aci ‘elder brother’ ɲibo ‘guest’ tabə ‘snake’ ai ‘tooth’ au ‘fat; grease’ aɲi ‘elder sister’ adɨr ‘tired’ anə ‘leaf’ takə ‘squirrel’ Tense `aci ‘pain’ `ɲibo ‘priest’ `tabə ‘sugar cane’ `ai ‘heavy’ `au ‘spicy; chilli taste’ `aɲi ‘two’ `adɨr ‘unnaturally oriented’ `anə ‘mother’ `takə ‘body louse’ In general, if a tone is marked on a word in the dictionary, it is marked on that word in a sentence, even though the “contour” of the pitch may be slightly different for contextual reasons: Note that this is not the same as “present tense” or “past tense” in English grammar. “Tense” tone refers to the added tension in the vocal cords produced when making these sounds. 1 xix `bɨɨ `ŋok acc ə `na ‘He’s my elder brother.' `bɨɨ `ŋok `ann `ə `na ‘She’s my mother.’ Another important point regards suffixes. In general, if any word contains a suffix with a Tense tone, that word will itself be Tense. In this example, donam is a Plain verb, but the Imperfective suffix -`duu is Tense. Therefore, the word resulting from their combination is also Tense: donam ‘to eat’ + -`duu ‘Imperfective’ → `doduu (not doduu) donam ‘to eat’ + `-lɨɨ ‘Desiderative’ → `dolɨɨ (not dolɨɨ) If a Plain verb has a Plain suffix, the resulting word is also Plain: donam ‘to eat’ + -to ‘Perfective’ → doto (not `doto) donam ‘to eat’ + -rə ‘Irrealis’ → dorə (not `dorə) Any Tense verb will always be Tense, no matter what kind of suffix it takes: `duunam ‘to sit’ + `-duu ‘Imperfective’ → `duuduu (not duuduu) `duunam ‘to sit’ + `-lɨɨ ‘Desiderative’ → `duulɨɨ (not duulɨɨ) `duunam ‘to sit’ + -to ‘Perfective’ → `duuto (not duuto) `duunam ‘to sit’ + -rə ‘Irrealis’ → `duurə (not duurə) Here is the basic rule: if any part of a word is Tense, that entire word will be Tense. If all parts of a word are Plain, that entire word will be Plain. Where to put spaces between words Word spacing can be extremely difficult in Galo. This is because Galo grammar and Galo phonology operate somewhat differently in the way “boundaries” are assigned to “words”. This is a common thing in TibetoBurman languages, but it can be very frustrating when working out a writing system or learning to write. The majority of words in Galo are disyllabic (made of two syllables). Examples are alak ‘hand/arm’ and donam ‘to eat’. But this is not a requirement. Several words are also monosyllabic (made of a single syllable). Examples are ɲii ‘person’ and paa ‘dawn’. xx The problem begins when grammatical forms are added. Grammatical forms are usually not very good as independent “words”, and they tend to “lean” on nearby words. Therefore, it can be tempting to write them as part of “the same” word. But if we listen closely, there are differences between what happens inside a word and what happens at the word’s edge. For example, the “special phonological processes” discussed above happen only inside words, not at a word’s edge. In the below example, note that -p, as in kap- ‘cry’ becomes -b when it occurs next to a voiced consonant inside a word, but not when it comes at the end of a word, as in `rəp ‘begin’: kap- ‘cry’ + -rəp ‘begin’ + -`duu ‘Imperfective’ → kabrəp `duu But now, note that the same -p in -rəp ‘begin’ becomes -b when it occurs inside a word: kap- ‘cry’ + -`lɨɨ ‘want’ + -rəp ‘begin’ + -`duu ‘Imperfective’ → kablɨɨ `rəbduu Therefore, it is important to write kabrəp and `duu as separate phonological words even though -`duu ‘Imperfective’ is a grammatical suffix. In this sense, although kap-rəp-`duu is a single grammatical word, it is realized in Galo as two phonological words: kabrəp and `duu. Since most Galo writers tend to try to reflect their actual pronunciation when writing, we have also tried to follow this principle. Another important point regards tone marking. If kap-rəp-`duu is written as a single word kabrəpduu…where do we put the tone mark? In fact, kabrəp is a Plain word, while -`duu is a Tense suffix. So, can we put the tone mark in the beginning: `kabrəpduu? Probably not. Compare `kablɨɨ + -`duu, a Tense word plus a Tense suffix. This word sounds different: `kablɨɨduu. If we write `kabrəpduu and `kablɨɨduu the same way, this violates the way Galo people actually speak and makes the tone symbol almost meaningless. Instead, if the phonological words are written separately, as they are spoken, then the tone symbol can accurately represent pronunciation and reading and writing become easier: `kabrəpduu `kablɨɨduu kabrəp `duu `kablɨɨ `duu A similar problem concerns the Accusative (object) marker `əm. This is a very common word which sounds very much like a suffix, in that it leans on a preceding noun. But here we have the same problem with tone marking. xxi Consider `opoo ‘rice beer’ + `əm ‘Accusative’ and ohoo ‘cane; rope’ + `əm ‘Accusative’. If we write `opoəm and `ohoəm, the sound is different, but the spelling is the same. But, if we write the words separately, then the pronunciation and the spelling match: `opoəm `ohoəm `opoo `əm ohoo `əm This rule is followed even when the combination of a word plus the Accusative create a disyllabic sequence (normally, a good “word”). This may be difficult to grasp at first, but it is important to ensure that the pronunciation and the spelling match: tabə ‘snake’ + `əm `tabə ‘sugar cane’ + `əm → → tabb `əm `tabb `əm Finally, we note that certain grammatical words do not have an assigned tone, but instead take tonal spreading from a neighbouring word. The most important such example is ə, which functions as both an article and a copula. When following a Tense word, ə is realized `ə. When following a Plain word, ə is realized ə: tabə ‘snake’ + ə `tabə ‘sugar cane’ + ə → → tabb ə `tabb `ə Conclusion This section has outlined a basic system for writing Galo using Galo Script. However, we are sure that other people will have other ideas, and it is also possible that the system that we have outlined here does not suit the speech of some particular Galo dialects which we have not considered. If this is so, we hope that people will bring any problems they encounter to the attention of the Galo Language Development Committee, and help us work toward solutions. Everything in this book is a work in progress. Let’s complete it together. xxii Abbreviations The following part-of-speech abbreviations are used: ace. adj. adj:expr. adj:mono. adjs. adv. advs. art. clfr. clfqr. cnj. cop. dem. expr. int. mono. n. n:clf. n:clfq. n:kin. n:num. n:qual. n:rel. n:time name. nce. num. onom. pcl. pfx. poet. pos. pro. adjectival compound element adjective expressive adjective monosyllabic adjectival root adjective suffix adverb(ial) split adverbial article classifier of kind (root form) classifier of quantity (root form) conjunction copula demonstrative expressive interjection monosyllabic noun classifier of kind (nominal/citation form) classifier of quantity (nominal/citation form) kinship term numeral (nominal/citation form) qualifying noun relator noun time noun proper name nominal compound element numeral (root form) onomatopoeia particle prefix poetic/ritual postposition pronoun xxiii pro:int. pros. v. v:c.arg. vce. vi. vt. vd. vs. vs:asp. vs:adv. vs:advs. vs:advsr. vs:mod. vs:nf. vs:nzr. vs:val. interrogative pronoun pronoun suffix verb (root) verb (root) with cognate (related) argument (noun) verbal compound element intransitive verb (root) transitive verb (root) ditransitive verb (root) verb suffix verb suffix with aspectual function verb suffix with “adverbial” function (predicate derivation) “split” adverbial suffix (predicate derivation) “split” reduplicative (repeating) adverbial suffix verb suffix with modal function non-final (“subordinate”) verb suffix verb suffix with nominalising function verb suffix with valence changing function How to read an entry Headword Variant form Explanation of variation Part of speech English meaning Grammar -`kv Var: `-k (occurs in non-phrase-final positions). pros. 's. Gram: Genitive case marker, occurring as a suffix to pronouns and demonstratives. `nok amin `vm `menji `laka! 'Tell me your name!' See: `gə ‘Genitive case marker’. Example of use English translation Crossreference xxiv a `aajin A a pcl. o! Hey! Gram: Vocative enclitic on terms of address, epecially proper names and kinship terms. Often occurs together with Vocative enclitic “go” to form an expression of entreaty, as “O my dear so-and-so”. - a sun is setting.’ `əraa `tokee! ‘Toss it away!’ ŋo `iss `əm `pɨaa kaa. ‘I threw away the water.’ `aaər `aak n. sharp edge of a blade. Usage: (P). n. itch. Aci go acc a! `ŋom `ɨlɨɨ `ə geegap `duu! ‘Hey brothers, O brothers! I’m stuck on this rock!’ Aɲi Mumsi go, Aɲi Mums a! no `ŋok `lo `aaduu `bə `rɨr ku! ‘O my dear Elder Sister Mumsi, you must come to my (place, to marry me)!’ `aakə `rɨduu. ‘It’s itchy.’ adj. itchy. `aak `agben `jaaduu! ‘It’s just too itchy!’ aak ace. See: ajik-aak ‘disturbing’. `aakii -aa vs:adv. toward. Gram: Venitive suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed ‘at/to/toward here’ or ‘at/to/toward home’. bəaa `tokee! nce. See: `aakii-taaɲii-`taaree n. ‘dragonfly’. `aakii-taaɲii-`taaree `aako `aakəə aagoo `aacoo n. entrance. dragonfly. Var: ɲaaŋii-ɲaaree (P). ‘Bring it here!’ `rɨlii-boŋŋom `laalee `laa, no nam lo gəaa rəku, `əi? ‘After taking the Rili-Bongo, you’ll bring it home, right?’ `mərum `gəlkə `menaa `duu.’ ‘They’re continually talking since last night (up to the present).’ pɨpp ə pɨaa kaa. ‘The egg rotted.’ Var: `aakɨɨ (P). n. chest; area of the lungs, ribcage and mammary glands. n:rel. west; direction of sunset. Var: `aasoo (P). n. prefix. Gram: Term in Galo grammar denoting a type of affix (“aatəm”) which occurs prior to the word stem to which it is affixed. Examples of Galo prefixes include “ta-” ‘Masculine diminutive’ and “ya-” ‘Feminine diminutive’. See: aatəm vi. stretch, as with tiredness; stretch out. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. `aa dem. that, on the same level, to the east or west, or in an unknown direction. `aa ɲii `ək `duud `ben. ‘There seem to be some people over there.’ vs:adv. away. Gram: Andative suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed ‘at/to there’, ‘off’ or ‘away from here’. dooɲ ə `oaa `duuku. ‘The -`aa ‘affix’. `aajin 1 `aajin-aataa `aaruk `aajin-aataa `aajup aaɲi aataa aatar vi. stretch; stretch out 6 • marry, of a woman; take a one’s arms and chest, as to relax. adj. lightweight. husband. `bɨɨ `əət `lo `aaduu. ‘She’s married an `Ete (man).’ n:poet. mithun. Usage: Goŋku. ace. See: `aajin-aataa ‘stretch’. n. `aanam `aanə vi. wail; cry with great force. `aala `gogdu ‘wailingly crying’. 1 variety of mushroom, either same as or similar to a chanterelle. n. tea leaf; tea leaves. 2 `Aanə `aatəə n. 1 • knot or joint on a length of bamboo; branching point from which leaves on a stalk of bamboo or some other type of reed or grass emerge. `aatəə `labnam ‘to hack the knots off a length of bamboo’. 2 • knuckle of a See: `guucup ‘tree knot’. Brahmaputra; more specifically, section of the Siang/Brahmaputra river beginning near Pasigat when it is no longer bounded by mountains and is able to spread freely throughout the floodplains. name. aapam finger. aatəm n. affix, especially suffix. Gram: Term in Galo grammar denoting a meaningful ‘piece’ of language smaller than a word, which may be attached to a word to affect its grammatical status and/or change its meaning. See: `aacoo n. fog; mist especially of the type almost perpetually drifting over the Arunachali jungle. `hɨro aapam ə maaji `dagee. ‘The fog was incredible this morning.’ See: tapam ‘snow; ice’. n. white tea; milk tea. n. heart (the organ). n:rel. front; front side of a aapuu `aapuk aaboo `aabə ‘prefix’. aanam vie. 1 • enter, as a room, house, a river, or any other enclosed space. `hil-aanam ‘to dive into a river’. 2 • come; move toward a focal structure. nam aaboo ‘front of the house’. n. third use field; field being used for the third and final time before fallow period. `aamik reference point. ‘lukɨɨ’ `kookɨɨ `bə, `yoo `ə aar ku `dɨɨ? ‘After April, what comes next?’ 3 • go home; go to one’s home (house or home village). 4 • walk or move on the same vt. hypnotize; immobilize or paralyze a living thing by manipulating its attention, as a python does before striking or a human being is when faced with sudden impending danger such as a landslide. topographical level, without ascending or descending. `bɨɨ `aakur kumaa. ‘He’s not coming back (on the same level).’ 5 • set, of the sun. dooɲ ə `aaduu aar n. back or rear paws of an animal; hind legs of an animal. `aarəm `mempək `laku. ‘It’s hind legs broke.’ n. tea leaves which have been already-used; steeped tea `aaruk ku. ‘The sun is setting.’ 2 `aaro aen leaves. ai! int. oi! Usage: Interjection with the `aaro Aaloo n. lung; lungs. name. district headquarters of West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. Largest town in West Siang district, and de facto capital of the Puugoo dialect area. Paleonym “Along”. intended function of quite forcefully commanding a hearer’s attention, as when a child is not answering an already-insistent question, as when being scolded. `au au `aalok aalɨɨ plain tea; black, unflavoured, un-sugared tea. n. n. black adj. spicy; hot; chilli taste. adin ə `au `ə. ‘The meat is spicy.’ n. grease; fat; oil. adj. oily; greasy; fatty. adin ə au ə. tea; red tea; tea without milk. ‘The meat is fatty.’ `aahen Var: `aasen (P).vt. aup n. rib; ribs; ribcage. smoke-dry, as fish, particularly as carried out on the diagonally-positioned drying rack suspended from the base of a fireplace shelving complex. `nun ŋoii `əm `aahen tob `ree? ‘Have you dried the fish yet?’ aup-`reeroo aum adj. of a rice plant, to be at the stage when leaves begin branching out into long lengths. n:num. three. aum go `jilaa `kee. ‘Give me three.’ adj. be three; be a quantity of ai nce. See: ai-agam ‘luck’; agom-ai ‘topic’. ai-agam aii `aii three. aum `duu `lakaa! ‘It’s three, for goodness’ sake (I expected it would be two)!’ n. 1 • luck. 2 • religion. See: agam ‘providence’. Var: iijuu (P). n. tooth (any kind). `aum aur n:clfq. mouthful of something, especially liquid. adj. loose. Usage: (P). See: ahur ‘loose’. n. stomach (the organ). adj. heavy. `aii nammə `joolaa maa. ‘You can’t pick up the heavy ones.’ adj. cold. Usage: (P). See: `arɨk ace. See: `ain-`apak ‘decrepit’. aek `aik `ain `ain aek-cərəə ‘cold (L)’. n. treasure; ornament; thing of value. n. corner of the torso; lower side of the body, the area under the armpit and above the waist, especially the area on the same level as the stomach. See: aek ‘stomach’; cərəə ‘corner’. adj. fast; quick; speedy. Gram: usu. followed by “`bə” `aen `bəkee! `ain-`apak broken down; decrepit, as of a vehicle or other machine. adj. aen aen Hurry up (go quickly)! n. shoulder strap of a dao sheath, or belt-strap of a knife See: gəen ‘loom sheath. back-strap’. `ain-`murkoo n. money; cash; wealth; funds. See: `ain ‘treasure’; `murkoo ‘money’. 3 `ao akii-arii `ao n. child; especially, son. vt. be carrying a child. `ao gənam pregnant; be `ao bəənam v:inc.arg.O. bear a child; have a baby. `kohuk `əm ɲim `laanam `ə, `tapek `əm `ao bəəto. ‘Having taken a dried-up leaf as a wife, the leech was born as their child.’ See: `ao ‘child’; bəənam ‘hold; bear’. n:clfq. grasped handful, as the result of grasping into a pile of leaves. Var: `ao-`abɨɨ (P). n. eldest child. See: `ao ‘child’; kai ‘big’. dem. that very far away, on the uneasy or without confidence, as when experiencing vertigo or when in the presence of the opposite sex. aɨk `doo? ‘Are you dizzy (at that height)?’ adj. aɨr `aəə n. sweat. dem. that way over there, on the same level, to the east or west, or in an unknown direction. `aəə `rəken maa. ‘It’s not nice way over there.’ n. strip of flesh taken from the back of an animal, viewed as a cut of meat. `aər go `ərji `tokee. ‘Cut him a strip from the back.’ aok `aər `ao-kai `aɨɨ aɨɨ -ak same level, to the east or west, or in an unknown direction. n. body; especially, human body. aɨɨ `əm `əmm `ə `gulaa. ‘His body was burned by fire.’ n:qual. self; own, in the possessive sense. Gram: May also be used to denote all singular reflexive nouns (according to context), including myself, yourself, itself, oneself; himself and herself ərap ə aɨɨ ə vs:adv. dare. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject dares to bring about the event/state indicated by the verb. ace. clean. Usage: Usually occurs in compound. akak See: abin-akak ‘razed’. akak-alak cikkok hikaa. ‘The door opened by itself.’ aɨɨ `gə alak ə `dollom `ɨduu. ‘They pound the paddy with their own hands.’ adj:expr. naked or empty feeling; feeling of missing someone or something which should properly be there. akak-alak ə! ‘I feel naked (as though something which I should have is not with me)!’ n. belly; stomach; guts; innards. `bɨɨk akii ə al `maaduu. ‘He has a stomach ache.’ See: kiinam ‘to disembowel (an animal)’. 1 akii aɨɨ-aɨɨ n:qual. selves; each and every one of ourselves, yourselves, or themselves. In possessive sense, our/your/their own. `ar `gon `ogo, `bulu aɨɨ-aɨɨ `gə nam lo iŋkaa ku. ‘The next morning they went back to their own homes.’ aɨɨ-aɨɨ `gə `amin `əm `meɲji `tokaa. ‘Tell him all of your names.’ See: aɨɨ ‘self’. n. unease; lack of confidence. akii-arii Var: ləəkii-ləərii (P). adj. store carefully and well, as a museum curator. See: anam ‘keep; store’. akii-arii aɨk adamant; argumentative and pushing one’s own points or opinions. 2 adj. 4 akii-jugnam `ako akii-jugnam have vi. have diarrhoea; loose motion/bowels. See: akii ‘guts’; jugnam ‘run’. `akin muddled; impeded; 1 ace. confused. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `akin-`amin ‘muddled’. packet made from wrapped “oko” leaf. Usage: Goŋku. 2 `akin n:poet. Usage: generally one’s own. followed by “ə” ‘Topic marker’. ŋo `aken `ə `looɲi-loum go `mootum `lo `rəlaa `cin bohi maa! ‘If I stayed on my own in the jungle for two or three days I wouldn’t be scared a bit!’ `ləkəə `lo, `ŋun `aken `ə rəto. ‘In the past, we lived alone.’ 2 • same (one); single. `bulu attɨr ə `ləken gobə, nam `aken `lo, `yuppom toku. ‘They, the group, slept all together as one in the same (in a single) house.’ `akin-`amin adj:expr. confused, of a person or his thoughts, as well as a jumble of objects; mixed up; hodgepodge; all over the place. `akin-`amin `dak. ‘It’s all muddled up.’ `aken-`aken `akin-`arin hopelessly messed up; tangled beyond repair, as loom threads which have been twisted around improperly. adj:expr. n:qual. one by one; one after the other. `aken-`aken `bə `aatok! ‘Come one by one (not all at once)!’ n:qual. n:qual. each one; each and every one. aken-aken ə `menna. ‘each one said...’ aken-aken `əm `orduu. ‘We distribute (the fish) to everyone.’ 2 • n:qual. one another; each other. Gram: sense found when occurring together with a reflexive predicate aken-aken akuk akup n. bark; skin; outer covering of a non-animate entity, as the bark of a tree or skin of a fruit. adj. upright. adj. forceful, of an action; `akum hard. `akum `bə no nɨkt kaa. ‘You should poke forcefully.’ `akum-aɲum akee-aree `akek `akek adj:expr. curled; curled up, as thread, an insect, or reflexively-curling leaves. adj:expr. selfish. `bulu aken-aken ə `mokə hirə. ‘They will kill one other.’ aken-aken `əm nɨŋmii hikaa `laa `məəbə. ‘We should punch each other.’ aken-aren kidney. `kookek `ijcin 1 n. `akek kaamaa `na. ‘Even now the “`kookek” bird has no kidneys.’ 2 n:qual. few remainders; one or two stragglers. aken-aren `rət `nacin, alə `bə rət kaa. ‘The few or you who remain there, live well.’ `aken-`aren nce. See: `ahik-`akek ‘remainder’. adj:expr. one or two; a few. `jipen `ə `aken-`aren `gol `pə. ‘It seems that one or two were left out.’ See: `aken ‘one’. ace. See: adɨk-ako ‘arrogant’. `aken n:num. one. `aken go `ɲum ako `ako ‘only one’. n:qual. 1 • alone; by oneself; one adj. old, of a non-living thing. `akko ‘It’s old’. `ŋok namm ə 5 akoo `agum maaji `bə `ako `duuku. ‘My house is very old.’ akoo `akop n. handle, of any instrument, adj. dented. See: `akop-`arop tool or container. ‘dented’. of, or in an unknown location relative to the place of speaking. `mɨɨ `gojoo `akkə `yobloo `duu. ‘He’s jumping off/from the platform.’ no `akkə `ree `aadak `ko? ‘Are you coming from there?’ `akop-`arop `akor akor n. Var: `akop-`ayop (P). adj:expr. dented. akkə `akcɨɨ n:num. six. letter of the alphabet; symbol; character (in writing). Source: Assamese. n:clfq. pace; step taken as a measuring unit, as when measuring the length of a surface area. int. whew! That was a close one! Usage: Interjection expressing alarm at having been on the brink of catastrophe. See: `akcɨk ‘brink; verge’. `akcɨk akə n:kin. maternal uncle or uncles, viewed as a super-ordinate category of relation. Usage: used in reference, not address. pos. via (by way of), of (from or adj. brink or verge, as of disaster or catastrophe. Usage: generally occurs as supporting word/compound element. `bɨɨ `ogo hidaa `akcɨk to. ‘Then he was on the brink of death.’ n. branch, of a tree. See: agbə ‘branch’. n. flock of crows or ravens. `akə akcəə belonging to) or in the general direction of somewhere on the same level as, to the east or west of, or in an unknown location relative to the place of speaking. `ak int kaa. ‘Go via that way.’ `aktɨɨ agak n. bunch; however much can be held by grasping with the hand, as leaves or vegetables. n. providence; fortune; luck; success. agam `bə, `dei! ‘Good luck!’ n. omen of good fortune associated with a particular ritual made at a time of marriage. See: agam ‘providence’. n. 1 • kettle handle; handle of akək-arək emaciated; withered; of a person, skinny past the point of being attractive; of a vegetable, spindly and unhealthy-looking. adj:expr. nce. See: akər-doomər n. swallow, and/or agam agam-gaŋkoo akər ‘swallow (bird)’. akər-doomər aguu other variety of quick-starting, small and bent-winged bird. restless; agitated. akər-doomər `bə jargoo `laa. ‘He flitted around restlessly.’ adj. a kettle. 2 • handle, of any kind. `agum `akkə pos. from somewhere on the same level as, to the east or west n. exterior; outside. `agum `lo `mat `bə `induu ku. ‘They went to the outside to search some more.’ n:rel. outside; out. ŋo `agum 6 `agum-`parmoo `agraa `nenlaa `rədɨɨ? outside?’ ‘Can I go agnam vt. layer sheets, especially `agum-`parmoo literally, n. menstruation; ‘outside prohibition’. See: `agum ‘outside’. `agee ager n. gap, in time or space. leaves, to form a storage container, as when making a rice beer filter. `poopɨr `lo `okkom `aglɨk `tokee. ‘Stop up the rice beer filter with leaves.’ n. work; job; profession; task. Source: Minyong (Adi). `bɨɨ ager agnam `rɨlaa maato. ‘He couldn’t work.’ `ago n. heat. `aggo `ŋom `aŋ-`alaa `moduu. ‘Heat makes me tired.’ dooɲi `ago `bə `ŋunu rɨk into. ‘We went to the fields in the heat of the sun.’ vt. scoop liquid from a container, as when transferring water from a bucket to a surface being cleaned. Usage: Not used to describe scooping of non-liquid items, such as salt or grains. agnam adj. hot; warm. `ag `guben `jaaduu. ‘It’s just too bloody hot.’ vt. hook something; hang something from a hook. `boolup `əm `agla at `kee. ‘Keep your hat hung up.’ vt. of an obstacle, block one’s way when carrying something large and heavy, as when trees catch one’s load when walking through the jungle. vt. furious; angry. agop aktup-akci handspan; measured length from tip of thumb to tip of little finger with all fingers outstretched. n:clfq. 1 agom language; word. Galo agom ‘The Galo language’. n. 2 • point, 1 • speech; `agnam `aglɨɨ `agnə in an argument or story; matter; what someone has to say. no `əm `meŋgərə, `bɨɨ `əm `meŋgərə; agom ə `yoombə `meŋken `doobə? ‘You say this, Mark says that; how will you arrive at a consensus?’ vt. be angry at someone; be furious or enraged at someone. n. stem of a plant; trunk of a tree. See: anə ‘leaf’. `agbee agom 2 nce. See: aruu-agom n. crow, particularly of the relatively smaller, scavenging variety found clustering around human settlements and cities. n. branch of a tree. See: akcəə ‘branch’. n. fermented soybeans. ‘uneven terrain’. agbə agom-ai n. words; topic; theme; subject matter; contents of a point or other object of discussion. See: agom ‘word’. n. blunt edge of a blade; backside of a blade. `agyaa `agraa `agɨɨ `agəə n. store; storage area; space for keeping things. Var: ləəgəə (P). n. variety of hardwood tree used for construction and firewood. Smooth, almost birch-like bark with wrinkles at branching points, distinctive arrow-like leaf with gathering on front surface. Blood-red sap is 7 agree aci found in a channel down the centre of the trunk and branches. agree nce. See: agree-`googee n. the sibling (brother or sister) of a daughter in law, i.e. any wife of any of one’s sons or grandsons. ‘rainbow’. aŋŋo acaa n:num. five. agree-`googee `aglo rainbow. See: `googee ‘arc’. n:time. second moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-January to mid-February. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of February. Var: hɨɨlo (P). adj. See: `aŋaa-`araa ‘lonely’. Var: asaa (P). nce. See: acaa-`kayaa ‘blackmouth’. Var: asaa-`kayaa (P). n. variety of blackmouth, a tallish acaa-`kayaa `aŋaa `aŋaa-`araa adj:expr. lonely; despondent, possibly with an overtone of helplessness or foolishness. `bull iɲɲii `rəm `nunu `aŋaa-`araa rəku `com. ‘When they leave, I suppose you’ll be lonely.’ adj. beat; fed up; had (~ 6-7 ft.), bush-like plant with a red stem, a reddish tint to the young leaves, a light purple Solanum-like flower, and dark blue fruits which blacken the mouth when eaten. Melastoma sp. Var: asaa-`kayaa (P). See: `kayaa ‘black’. acam Var: asam (P). n. subset; portion. acam `gonna `tolɨk `duu. ‘A subset of them support (the idea).’ n:clfq. tens place, for multiples of `aŋ-`alaa `aŋin aŋo adj. enough; exhausted. naked; without clothing. nude; bare; seven, eight and nine. acam `kanə ‘seventy’. acam `piinə ‘eighty’. acam `keŋŋaa ‘ninety’. `aci Var: ac; `asi (P). n. 1 • pain; hurt; Var: ad. n. 1 • different thing; strange thing. `hɨgɨ aŋ go; `ŋokkə moo. ‘This is a different one; it’s not mine.’ 2 • difference. aŋ `yaa kaamaa. injury. no `moomii himaa `naggee boolo, `aci go `paamaa hae. ‘If you hadn’t quarrelled, you wouldn’t be feeling hurt.’ 2 • illness. adj. 1 • in pain; feeling pain. 2 • harsh; strong; hard, as rain in ‘There’s no difference between (those two things).’ adj. 1 • different. aŋ `duu. ‘It’s different (from the other one).’ or ‘It’s strange (in general).’ 2 • strange; peculiar; odd. aŋ `ruu `empaa! ‘How horrible (I don’t feel that way at all)!’ nce. See: alii-aŋoo a severe storm or a terrible fall. “no aɲɲii go...`aci `ruubə nɨkt `kaa!” “You’ll have to...give her a really good poke!” ɲidoo `aci `bə oto. ‘The rain fell strongly/hard.’ aci aŋoo `aŋə Var: asi (P). n:kin. elder brother. Usage: used to refer to or address ‘generation’. n:kin. daughter in law’s sibling. Usage: used to refer to or address one’s elder brother by blood or by kin. May also be used to refer respectfully to a non-relative of 8 aci-abo acci the same gender, who may be more or less older than oneself. Sometimes also used by married women to refer to one’s husband’s brother, although this may be a recent usage which is not well-established in some areas. something; make up one’s mind. `acen-`aren kumaa. ‘I can’t decide.’ `aco Var: `aso (P). n. 1 • breast, of a female or male; mammary gland. 2 • milk; breast milk. aci-abo `acɨr Var: `asɨr (P). n. seed; pellet. Var: ac-abo; asi-abo (P). n. mature man. `bɨɨ ac-ab `ruubə `rɨruu `duu! ‘He’s such a man!’ See: aɲi-abo ‘mature woman’. `acɨr-`abuk ‘pod’. Var: `asɨr-`abuk (P). n. pockmark. See: `acɨr ‘seed’; `abuk aci-`abɨɨ aci-`abɨr aci-kai acin n. elders. See: aci ‘elder acəə brother’; `abɨɨ ‘elder’. Var: asi-`abɨr (P). n. younger siblings. See: aci ‘elder brother’; `abɨr ‘younger sibling’. Var: asi-`abɨɨ (P). n. eldest brother. See: ao-kai ‘eldest child’; Var: asin (P). n. cooked rice. Var: asəə (P). n. offshoot; extension; body made up of connected extensions, as a ginger or bamboo rhizome. takee acəə go ‘a ginger rhizome’. adj. apart; separate or separatist; aɲi-kai ‘eldest sister’. contrarian. `bɨɨ acəə-pərəə bə `rɨlaa. ‘He wouldn’t mingle with the others.’ acək acin-oo Var: asin-oo (P). n. prepared food; cuisine. See: acin ‘cooked rice’; oo ‘vegetable’. Var: asin-ɨji-oo (P). n. Var: asək (P). nce. piece; section broken or cut off from a whole. Usage: Usu. occurs in compound. See: acək-parək ‘splinter’. Var: asək-arək (P). n:expr. acin-ɨji-oo acin-paarin acək-arək splinter. foodstuffs, and suchlike. See: acin-oo ‘foodstuffs’. Var: taasin-purin (P). n. variety of plant with small, acək-parək edible red berries growing close to the ground; possibly false solomon’s seal. Var: asək-parək (P). n. wood splinter; smallest possible piece of wood, generally as residue from chopping. acc-`accoo acuaa `acen Var: asuaa (P). int. soooey! Usage: Interjection used for calling Var: `asen (P). adj. believable. pigs. abbɨɨ! ŋoii ə `acen maa! ‘Wah! There are so many fish (in the river) it’s unbelievable!’ Var: asso-`assoo (P). adj. very, very quiet. `ac-`accoo `bə ɲii `kaapaa `komaa `bə kegee kaa. ‘Run away carefully without letting anyone see you.’ Var: ajji (P). nce. fraction; mere fragment. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: aɲɲii-acci ‘bits and pieces’. int. whew! That was a close one! Usage: spoken when one acci `acen-`aren Var: `asen-`aren (P). adj:expr. decide; come to know experiences a close shave, as 9 `accoo ajəə-ayəə when one was about to fall but just managed to save oneself. acci! ‘Whoa, that was a close one!’ someone who isn’t good at something. `yoo `ajek maa! ‘What a loser!’ `yoo `ajek go! ‘How useless!’ `accoo Var: `assoo (P). adj. 1 • quiet; careful; stealthy. ajek n:clfq. 1 • slice, as of meat; ripped-off section, as of clothing. 2 • disregarding of others; caring (only) about one’s own situation in carrying out some action. adv. 1 • carefully; stealthily. 2 • casually; without hurry or 2 • little bit; little thing. Usage: usually used in an abstract sense. ŋo ajek go `marnii `marnaa `duu. ‘I’m getting a little bit angry.’ worrying about potentially bad consequences. hoo ə `nəjɨr `gonna `acco!...ərək `əm `tupkə jikaa ku. ‘One of the young cows, wha-hey!...head-butted his pig to death.’ `ajek-apaa `accoo `bə `acco! Just adv. quietly. valuable. used in the negative, to describe something or someone not valuable or good-for-nothing. `ajek-apaa maa ‘good for nothing’. See: `ajek ‘expert’; apaa ‘whippersnapper’. adj. Usage: Usually n. friend. vt. 1 • befriend someone; bond with someone, as one man to another man or one woman to another woman. 2 • engage in or be in a sexual int. aha! Hold everything! `ajen a cotton-pickin’ minute! Usage: used to indicate a sense of discovery or realization of a secret, desire for stealth as one hatches a plan, or indication of one’s own or another person’s intent to be cunning in obtaining an objective. See: `accoo ‘quiet’. relationship with someone, as a man to a woman. `ajap n. flat side of something; such `ajen-`amen `ajen-arum `ajɨɨ `ajɨr ajəə ajəə as a stone. adj. flat, of an object with a side or n:expr. friends and acquaintances. See: `ajen ‘friend’. n. circle of friends. See: `ajen ‘friend’; arum ‘family’. adj. proud; prideful. n. cash; change; coins. broad surface, such as a spent pouch of tobacco. `ajar adj. overjoyed; fawning, as a dog when seeing its master; running about in a flighty and obsequious way. 1 adj. scattered; scattered about; messy and disorganized. See: ajəə-ayəə ‘scattered about’. ajik `ajek ace. See: ajik-aak ‘disturbing’. adj. disturbing; annoying. ajik-aak n. expert; someone skilled at something. Usage: Generally used in the negative, to describe 2 n. penalty; fine. `ŋok `yoo ajəə kaamaa. ‘There’s no penalty in it for me.’ ajəə-ayəə vi:expr. higglety-pigglety; all jumbled or mixed up, as one’s possessions or things lying about 10 ajər aɲɲii-cakkoo the house. See: ajəə ‘scattered’. aɲum `aɲɨɨ `aɲɨɨ ace. See: aŋum-ahəə ‘dirty’. adj. dirty; filthy. ajər ace. See: ajər-amər ‘restless’. aɲum-ahəə ajər-amər adj:expr. restless and flitting about, especially of a woman; not sit silently. `bɨɨ ajər-amər `nago. `accob `duumaa. ‘She’s a restless one. She never sits quietly.’ adj. real. See: al `jaa; jij `jaa. n. n:time. year. n. shame. adj. shy. `aɲɨɨ-`aso aɲɨk Var: `aɲɨɨ-`aco; `aɲɨɨ-`as. aj`jaa adj. ashamed; shy. n. eye. ajji-arii ajjii aɲi bits and pieces. Usage: (P). See: aɲɲii-acci. adj. little; small. See: aɲɲii ‘little’. Usage: (P). aɲɨk-taluu n. eyeglasses; glasses. Usage: reportedly prevalent in Kamdak area. See: aɲɨk ‘eye’; taluu ‘plank’. Var: aɲ. n:kin. elder sister. Usage: used to refer to or address aɲəə aɲcɨɨ ace. See: ahum-aɲəə ‘dirty’. one’s elder sister by blood or by kin. May also be used to address non-related women who are slightly older than oneself. adj. freezing; extremely cold. Usage: rare in Galo; common in Minyong. addɨɨ! aɲcɨɨ ə! ‘Ayaa! It’s freezing!’ `aɲi n:num. two. aɲɲii n:qual. both. Gram: followed by “`ə” `aɲɲ `ə `bɨəm `maduu ku. ‘They both went to search.’ adj. be two. `aɲi rə. ‘It will be two.’ Var: ajjii (P). n:qual. bit; little bit. `am `lok aɲɲii go `cilla. ‘They planted a bit of paddy.’ `ahik-`akek aɲɲii go `dagdu `pə! ‘I suppose a tiny bit might be remaining!’ adj. little; small. aɲɲii `na dooluu aɲi-abo Var: aɲ-abo. n. mature woman. See: aɲi ‘elder sister’; abo ‘father’. gollo, ŋo kai `icaa to. ‘I grew up in a small village.’ `aɲɲii Var: `ajjii (P). adj. teeny; tiny. aɲi-abɨɨ aɲi-kai n. eldest sister. Usage: (P). See: aɲi-kai ‘eldest sister’. Var: aɲi-abɨɨ (P). n. eldest sister. See: ao-kai ‘eldest child’. aɲɲii-acci `aɲi-bup`paa `aɲi-bup`pɨɨ ‘everyone’. Var: `aɲi-up`paa. n:qual. both; both of them. See: `aɲi ‘two’. Var: `aɲi-up`pɨɨ. n:qual. both; both of them. See: `aɲi ‘two’; bup`pɨɨ Var: ajji-arii (P). n. bits and pieces; bits and bobs; small, unimportant details, matters, or aspects of a matter. aɲɲii-acci `əm `əpak `tokee. ‘Don’t worry about the bits and pieces.’ aɲɲii-acci go `cenduu. ‘(I) know a little bit (of English).’ See: aɲɲii ‘a little’; acci ‘fraction’. Var: aj`jii-nago (P). n. very little bit; tiny amount. See: aɲɲii ‘little’. aɲɲii-cakkoo 11 `ataa atɨr `ataa atak n. wheat flour; bread dough made from wheat flour. Source: annoying. Hindi. n:clfq. side. Gram: Quantity classifier for usually rigid, solid, more or less flat-sided things/things with flattish surface area, such as rivers. Often classifies split-off fragments of a whole, such as pieces of cut betelnut. `atum clump; rolled-up or bunched-up object or mashed-up ball of a substance, such as soil. `atum `tumɲi go ‘two balls or clumps of e.g. soil’. n. adj. stout; rotund; well and round. Var: `atum-`alek (P). adj. stout; squat; short but fat, as a `atum-`alik n. breadth of a flat thing/thing with surface, as a river. `hibuu `gə `atak `ə `yoombə `rɨdak? ‘How broad is the river now (since it’s been raining)?’ adj. flat. `hɨgɨ `atak `nag `lakaa! pig, certain types of dog, or a short, fat human. See: `atum ‘clump’. `ato Var: `at. n:kin. 1 • grandfather. Usage: used to refer to or address ‘Hey, this is a flat one (I had asked for a round one)!’ See: `ayar ‘length’. the father of one’s father or mother. 2 • father-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address the father of one’s spouse (husband or wife). `atam atii n. flat side of an object. See: tao-atii n. nectar; honey. ‘honey’. a`tii! How lovely! used when impressed by the beauty of something. bushel, generally of large-sized leaves such as fan palm or “oko”; 40 by standard. See: `ahu ‘group of four’. n:clfq. Var: attuu. n. portion; part. int. oh my! Usage: Interjection as of a property; master; lord. Usage: highly respectful term used to refer to or address a male of property, power, and/or from whom many descendants and much influence is thought to follow. 3 • owner, atik `Ato `Hapoo `ato-`ayo name. name legendary Galo ancestor. of a atuu n:qual. some (of them). Gram: Anaphorically-referring noun often used in construction with “`gonna”, giving the overall sense ‘some of them’. atuu `gonna `tɨɨduu, atuu Var: at-ay; ɲɨjɨɨ-`kakam (P). n. grandparents, i.e. grandmother and grandfather. See: `ato ‘grandfather’; `ayo ‘grandmother’. n:qual. group; crowd. atɨɨ atɨr `gonna tɨɨmaa `duu. ‘Some of them drink (alcohol), some of them don’t.’ Var: attɨr. n:qual. group of relatively large size, generally of Gram: humans/animates. atup ace. adj. See: atup-apen ‘disturbing’. atup-apen Qualifying noun usually following another noun, often together forming the sense ‘as a group’, or ‘groupwise’. disturbing; `ŋun attɨr ə `Lɨɨk-Balii inrə. ‘We 12 `atəə `adɨɨ! will all go to Likabali (as a group).’ atɨr lo `jappoo maa. ‘I don’t have the courage to speak in front of large groups of people.’ `adii n. 1 • mountain; hill. 2 • Adi, name for an informal `atəə n. section of bamboo; length of bamboo between two knots, potentially also including one entire knot. n. bamboo section. grouping of tribes and subtribes speaking several languages, some mutually intelligible, some not. 3 • Adi language, an informal label for a variety of mainly Eastern Tani languages. atəə atək adin adu n. meat; flesh; muscle. n:clfq. 1 • chip; hunk; piece of an item resulting from the action of “təgnam” chopping or hacking. n:clfq. forearm span; the length of one forearm, used in measuring. n:clf. section of (bamboo). Gram: Classifier for sections of bamboo, from knot to knot See: uduu ‘section of bamboo’. 2 • length; stretch. Gram: Quantity classifer for lengths or stretches of an entity with extension or length, such as a section of five or six beads out of a string, or a stretch of road or river aduu `adup attor `attə adj. hard, as of a bed; firm, as of muscles or overcooked meat. adj. big; large. See: kai ‘big (L)’. Usage: (P). adj. chafing; irritating, as the burning sensation from the touch of a chilli pepper, or when dirt gets in a wound. n. head hair. See: `amə ‘body adum ado adaa n:clf. stick of. Gram: Classifier for sticks, construed as any relatively long and rigid, stick-like object adaa hair’. Var: ad. n. sound; noise. `araa `lok ad kaamaa. ‘There was no sound from inside.’ See: dunam ‘make a sound’. Var: `odoo (P, L). n. distance. go ‘one stick (of something)’. `adak adj. 1 • tight, as of a shirt, or a car packed full of people; narrow. `ŋom `adak `duu. ‘(The sunglasses are) too tight on me.’ 2 • congested; `adoo adj. distant. bədaa `adoo `doona. ‘(It’s) a long way.’ of inhabited by overpopulated. an area people, ador adap n. body of an animal. ador `əm `abgəə `maatuu. ‘I didn’t hit its body (when I shot).’ n:clf. 1 • bunch of (leaves). Gram: Classifier for bound bunches of flat, flexible objects, such as leaves Gram: Classifier for 2 • volume. books 3 • class; level; grade. Gram: Classifier for classes, levels or grades, as in school n:clf. head of. Gram: Classifier for higher (four-legged) animals, including mithuns, cows, goats, dogs, mice, turtles and lizards but not including snakes, insects or birds. See: dor- ‘Classifier for higher animals’. `adɨɨ! int. wow! Usage: Interjection 13 adɨk anam used when shocked or impressed by the size or power of something. without shape or form. See: `adɨr ‘distorted’. adɨk n. person who is rightfully proud of himself. əə! adɨk go! ‘Oh! He’s such a pain in the ass!’ or ‘Oh! What a bore (no reason to attend to it)!’ (spoken in irony). adj. proud. `bɨɨ adɨk `bə məəs adɨr-amɨr adəə adək exhausted; super-tired, as from working all day. adj:expr. Var: addəə (P, L). adj. short. ɲii n. difference; different one. adəə `nago ‘a short man’. adək `yaa kaamaa. ‘There’s no difference between (those two things). adək ə `həmbə `na. ‘The difference (between the meaning of those two words) is like this.’ different. ‘different Syn: `bədək. adj. `duu. ‘He’s proud of himself (in a positive way).’ See: `adup ‘irritating’; adɨk-ako ‘ignore someone’. adɨk-ako adj. arrogant; proud and boastful. `bɨ `ŋom adɨk-ako `bə `rɨlaa. ‘He ignored me out of pride.’ See: adɨk ‘irritating’. adək-adək `na kinds/varieties’. See: adəm-aməm adɨk-ahɨk adɨr adj:expr. find importance adəm ace. in someone; see someone as worthy of response. fatigued; exhausted, as when muscles and joints are aching following hard labour. adj. 2 • uneasy; uncomfortable. adj. 1 • distorted in shape; bent 1 • tired; ‘lethargic’. adəm-aməm `addɨɨ adj:expr. lethargic. n. Var: `adɨɨ (P). strength; hardness; durability. adj. strong; hard; durable. addə! adlii anak anam int. wow! n. 50 cents, 50 paise. nce. See: apuk-anak ‘hasty’. `adɨr out of shape, as a car which has been in an accident; in an unnatural shape or orientation, particularly of a more or less rectangular entity which would more naturally be lying face-down, such as a body lying on its side, a book lying on its spine, or a body twisted along the breadth and deliberately made thin in order to pass through a narrow gap. `oloo `deelaa, `adɨr `bə `intok. ‘You might fall, walk breadth-wise (along the wall).’ 2 • rectangular in shape. vt. parch; 1 without oil. 2 dry-fry; fry anam vt. 1 • keep; place; set. `og at `ke. ‘Keep it over there (near you).’ See: ləənam ‘keep (P)’. 2 • do completely. Gram: Auxiliary-like final verb following a nonfinite predicate in “-`laa”. Indicates a complete, full or well-secured performance or iteration of the main event. ŋo `adɨr-abar adj. shapeless; formless; `rɨŋam `laa `atuu ku. ‘I’ve done everything (properly; completely).’ ərap `əm `hɨɨdaa `ə `tɨtum `laa akaa. ‘Taking a stick, 14 anin `anə-gɨɨtuu they propped the door shut.’ `ŋok kodee `əm `diir `laa arə. ‘I’ll demarcate my land.’ `kee. ‘Give me the entire tree.’ n:clf. stem of. Gram: Classifier for things with a more or less cylindrical or stem-like shape, such as any plant or tree. As a classifier for trees, denotes the entire tree, including See: `nəleaves and branches. anin n. manageable quantity; amount that can be dealt with. Usage: Usually found in the negative, as “anin maa” ‘a ton (an amount that can’t be dealt with)’. Ab Tanii `gə `dooyɨɨ `ə anin goku `ree? ‘There is an incredible number of Abo Tani storied (lit., ‘Are the Abo Tani stories of a manageable quantity?’, a rhetorical question). See: anin-`maabə ‘countlessly’. ‘Classifier for stems’. `anə `anə 2 n:clf. tail of. Gram: Classifier for fish Var: `an. n:kin. mother. Usage: used to refer to or address 3 one’s mother by blood or kin. female, especially female animal. ap `dakkom `an `dakkom puuluu `duu. ‘Whether male or female, they’re white.’ n. anin-`jaabə countlessly; in countless numbers. See: anin-`maabə ‘countlessly’. adv. adv. countlessly; in anin-`maabə anə countless numbers; an unbelievable amount. `hot-`hoɲɲo anin-`maabə rəto. ‘Tons of wild animals were there.’ Var: an. n. leaf. Usage: used to designate a living, not fallen, dead, rotted, or dried-out leaf, for which separate terms exist. n:clf. Classifier for living plants of all kinds. `anek `anoo n. hate. `anə-abo adj. jealous. See: -`nek ‘bad (to)’. nce. See: `anoo `dəənam. Var: `an-ab. n:kin. 1 • parents; mom and dad; ma and pa. Usage: used to refer to, `anoo `dəənam v. variety of chant uttered in traditional religious ceremonies, such as the mithun sacrifice at a “ɲidaa” wedding. n. part which is falling off of or but generally not address, one’s or another’s biological parents. 2 • recent ancestors; still-living or anɨr recently-departed predecessors or forebears. See: `anə ‘mother’; abo ‘father’. which has been separated from a whole. adj. separate or become separated, `anəə `nəənam `anə-gɨɨtuu v. variety of song or chant filled with sadness. Var: `an-gɨɨtuu. n. as a part which should be attached to a whole. `teksi akoo anɨr `dakku `lakaa! ‘The kettle handle has come off!’ `anə 1 n. stem; trunk; main body of or entire plant/tree. `hɨɨn anə go ‘one (entire) tree’. `ann `əm `jilaa womens’ leaning pillar. One of the main house-posts, rising through the interior space just adjacent to the “`ɲoohi-`peŋkoo”, conveniently placed where a woman should sit, and may wish to lean against. See: `anə ‘mother’; gɨɨtuu ‘pillar’. 15 `anə-ɲaməə `apee `anə-ɲaməə Var: `an-ɲaməə. n. boiling milk or a churning river. 2 • scum; married woman; middle-aged woman (35-ish). See: `anə ‘mother’; ɲaməə ‘daughter-in-law’. milk scum, i.e. the filmy surface of boiled/boiling milk. n. skin. n. flower. See: apuk-aluk `anə-ɲindum annəə! apaa apaa n:poet. mother. Usage: Goŋku. See: `anə ‘mother’. int. wow! Usage: Interjection `apin apuu `apuk apuk expressing wonderment, amazement, impressiveness, etc. whippersnapper; 1 n. and energetic person. young n. particle. ‘particles’. adj. hasty; in a hurry. adj. hasty; hurried; in a apuk-anak apuk-aree ‘hasty’. 2 n:clf. baton. Gram: Classifier for baton-like things, i.e. basically extended objects with some volume and/or rigidity. Prototypically classifies bananas, as well as eggplants, pillows and cigarette packs. rush and preparation. adj. without hasty. proper See: apuk `apuk-`aluk 2 • bamboo n:expr. 1 • particles. `apaa n. animal corridor; path made by an animal. Syn: `bəpaa. ace. See: ain-`apak pith; bamboo fragments created as a result of chopping bamboo. See: `apuk ‘particle’. `apak apar ‘decrepit’. n. group; subset; team. apar-apar `bə `mot kaa. ‘Get into groups.’ n:clfq. grinding’s worth (of). Gram: Classifier for a grinding’s worth of paddy; one set of paddy, construed as ground in a single mortar basin apuk-aluk `apum n. adj:expr. hasty; hurried. See: apuk ‘hasty’. `dol apar go ‘a mortars’ worth of paddy’. heap; hulk; pile; a rounded object of any size, composed of one thing or many things; of group-dwelling insects, a cluster or swarm. taŋik `apum ‘pile of (swarming) bees’. taruk `apum ‘pile of (swarming) ants’. `ej `apum ‘pile of clothing’. See: `pumnam ‘to pile’. n:clfq. 1 • bunch, as of bananas; hand of bananas. `kopak apee ə `peeyaa `duu. ‘The hand of bananas is big.’ `apii apik n. sweetie; dearie. Affectionate nickname for a female human individual. apee n. soil brought to the surface by burrowing animals or insects, such as ants, worms, and rodents. See: eepik ‘excrement deposited on surface by a burrowing animal’. n. 1 • bubble; foam, as from 2 • sheet of flattened bamboo wall; Classifier for walls. ɲoopee apee go ‘a sheet of flattened bamboo wall’. `apik `apee adj. fatigued; tired out, particularly of one’s muscle or 16 `apek abaa muscles after doing a particular job for some duration; cramped up. 2 • fruit, of more or less apple size or above. adj. 1 • round; globular; spherical. `apek adj. perseverant. `bɨɨ `apek `nag `na. ‘He’s a perseverant one.’ See: `apek-`arek ‘perseverant’. `apə `na `ɨlɨɨ `pɨɲi go ‘two round stones’. of a fruit-bearing plant. `apə `pɨben `jaaduu. ‘It’s bearing too bloody many fruits.’ 2 • fruiting, `apek-`arek apen apo apoo ace. adj:expr. perseverant. See: atup-apen `apə-`asəə ‘disturbing’. n. male, especially male animal. n. See: `apə-`ahee. Usage: (P). `apə-`ahee `apək n. breadth, measuring. as when Var: `apə-`asəə (P). n. fruit, of all or any variety. See: `apə ‘globe’; `ahee ‘berry’. adj. perfect; clear. n:clf. trunk of. Gram: Classifier for solid (not hollow) pole-shaped things, such as trees or batteries `hɨɨn apoo `apək-`arək ‘tree (trunk focus)’. adj. breadth-wise. apoo `bə `bəəla `induu. ‘He’s going along carrying it breadth-wise.’ adj:expr. 1 • of a person, intelligent; sharp; perfect; diligent. Usage: usu. occurs in negative. `bɨɨ `apək-`arək maa. ‘He’s an idiot.’ 2 • of a person or his words, apoo-jɨrjoo Blackbreasted sunbird. Variety of small nectar-eating bird; male brightly coloured, female dull. Generally flies level across the breadth of a plane at a medium height. Aethopyga saturata. See: apoo ‘breadth’. n. n. cluster; group; pile, as of clear; unambiguous. ŋo `yoo `apək-`arək kumaa! ‘I’m not at all clear (about this) anymore!’ `apə-remmo n. sinew. So named because when cooked, its contraction causes a length of meat to roll into a ball. See: `apə ‘globe’. Var: `apə-riilum (P). adj. apom apɨr `apə-`liilum stones. n. 1 • root, of any type or size of plant or tree. 2 • nerve or vein, as of the human body. See: raapɨr ‘root’. perfectly round, circular, globular or spherical, as a perfect fruit. See: `apə ‘round’; `liilum ‘round like a seed’. n:num. four. appii `appɨɨ apɨr-amaa apə `apə root, in general. Syn: raapɨr-raamaa. See: apɨr ‘root; nerve’; amaa ‘creeper’. n. n. breadth. n. 1 • globe; n:qual. all; every. dopak `əmcin `apɨɨ `əm orsil dorə. ‘They’ll distribute and eat all of the drinking snacks as well.’ adj:poet. sphere; object shaped like a globe or sphere. abaa good. Usage: formal; used regularly by some speakers when giving a formal salutation. 17 `abaa abor abaa `bə ‘farewell’. abo `abaa n:clf. type (of); variety (of); version (of); instance (of). Gram: Classifier for types, varieties, versions, instances or examples of items of which more than one type or instance is available, as dishes, songs, dances, and activities `abaa `naruu Var: ab. n:kin. 1 • father. Usage: used to refer to or to address one’s father by blood or kin. 2 • paternal aunt. Usage: used to `əm `laalaa. ‘They took every type (of animal).’ `abak `abar n. sap; vegetable gum; resin. n:clf. disc; plate. Gram: Classifier for plates, discs or similarly-shaped things, such as coins (or money in general), plates, or flat shells ace. See: `adɨr-abar. refer to or address one’s father’s sister. For sake of clarity in reference, “abo `ɲijɨr” may be used to refer to one’s father’s sister, when confusion might otherwise result. However, as a term of address “abo” alone is used. See: abo-`ɲijɨr ‘paternal aunt’. Abo Tanii abar abin n. clearing; cleared or weeded area, in which only cultivated plants are found. Tanii. name. Abo Tani, legendary ancestor of humankind; particularly, as construed as the ultimate progenitor of the Tani tribespeople. See: abo ‘father’; tanii ‘human’. n. variety of bird, Himalayan jungle nightjar, or possibly Hodgson’s frogmouth. Caprimulgus indicus and/or Batrachostomus hodgsoni. See: abo ‘father’. n. leaning pillar for men, i.e. one of the main houseposts, rising through the interior space just adjacent to the men’s seating area. See: abo ‘father’; gɨɨtuu ‘pillar’. Var: Ab adj. cleared; razed. abin-akak abuu abo-kornoo adj. razed; completely cleared. See: abin ‘cleared’. n. river. n:clf. pipe of. Gram: Classifier for pipes or pipe-like objects, especially hollow poles, such as of bamboo abo-gɨɨtuu `abuk n:clf. pod. Gram: Classifier for pods, construed as bulbous/bulging sections of a whole, such as the seed-bearing pods in a jackfruit, sections of an orange, or halves of a vagina. abo-`ɲijɨr `abuk-`aruk n:expr. pockmark; flare-up on the skin, such as a pimple, boil, or the result of a mosquito bite. n. curse; ill fate; bad luck. `abur n:kin. paternal aunt; father’s sister. Usage: Generally used as a term of reference rather than address; as a term of address, simply “abo” is used. See: abo ‘father’; `ɲijɨr ‘girl’. n:clf. sheet. Gram: Classifier for sheets or other spread-out things, such as sheets of paper, leaves or pillows ŋo `yubdak `əm abor go adj. cursed. abor `abur-ae adj. cursed; See: `abur ‘cursed’. impure. `ɲum `bəəduu. ‘When I sleep, I 18 `abɨɨ `amo-tamii only use one (pillow).’ `abɨɨ `abɨr adj. elder; old, of humans. no `ŋom `abɨɨ `yaaduu. older than me.’ n:kin. Usage: used ‘You’re section of a plant, as a cucumber’s stem and its tendril shoots. See: arɨɨ-amaa ‘vein’; maanam ‘to creep, of a plant’. younger sibling. to refer to one’s younger sibling, whether male or female. May be used as a term of address, although more commonly used in practice are proper names. n:kin. younger sister. Usage: used to refer to, but not `amin `amin 1 Var: `amen (P). n. 1 • name. 2 • noun. rice powder; uncooked 2 n. rice which has been ground into powder, to be used to flavour and thicken dishes. adj. satisfying. n. 1 • gas, as from a fart; `abɨr-`ɲijɨr amuaa `amuk address, one’s younger sister. See: `abɨr ‘younger sibling’; `ɲijɨr ‘girl’. exhaled smoke from a cigarette. 2 • aroma. See: `doomuk ‘steam’. `abɨr-yaamee n:kin. younger brother. Usage: used to refer to, `amee n. ripe rice; rice which is ripe vt. ready for harvesting. but not address, one’s younger brother. See: `abɨr ‘younger sibling’; yaamee ‘boy’. amee-eenam rice. harvest ripe amee abə n. edge or corner of an object, as a laptop computer screen or a cup. `abnam vt. shoot, with a gun, bow/arrow or slingshot. ŋo `hodum `əm `abrə. ‘I’ll shoot the barking deer.’ int. n. variety of brass platter, used by a new bride to eat bridal rice on the way from her village of birth to the village of her husband. n:expr. brass platters of various types; brass platters and suchlike. n. gift; toy; plaything. amee-ayee `amen `amo abbaa! holy Usage: Interjection surprise or an attitude. moly! expression impressed n. paddy; un-husked rice. uncooked, `abbuk ab`bɨɨ! n. gun. Usage: (P). amoo int. whoa! Usage: Interjection used to express surprise at the greatness of a particular quantity, size, or duration. int. holy moly! n. 1 • creeper; nce. area. Usage: Uncommon as independent word; generally assoc. w. Minyong. In Galo, usu. occurs in compounds only. See: `amɨr-amoo ‘hue; aura’. n. condition; physical condition; state. amoo-`alap `amo-tamii ablaa! amaa spreading plant; climbing plant. 2 • tendril; creeping or grasping Var: `am-tamii. n. staple crop or crops of any or all varieties. See: `amo ‘paddy’; tamii 19 `amɨk ammee ‘millet’. `amɨk amɨr n. powder; minute particles. adj. powdery. n. mojo; kernel or quality of excellence, creativity or spirit in something, such as a cooked dish or a performance; vitality or virtue in a prepared thing. n. 1 • complexion, especially grains; planting rice; rice which is dried, tied in knots and hung to be used as seed grains for the next year’s crop. `amci `amɨr Var: `amsi (P). n. flattened crispy rice, obtained by boiling in-husk, drying and pounding flat such that the husks fall off easily. Eaten either dry as a snack or rehydrated in tea. of human skin. 2 • colour; hue. 3 • external feeling or condition `amdaa n. crop field; main or primary field, where rice is grown. of a human body, as the condition of one’s skin, whether itchy, blistered, or in good general condition. `amɨr `ə `eŋken maa. ‘My skin/body doesn’t feel good (I need a bath).’ `amɨr `mɨrlɨk `hiduu. ‘I’m acclimatizing myself (to local conditions)’. 4 • aura; amnam vt. warm something; heat something. adin `əm `amla dot `kaa. ‘Eat the meat warmed (not cold).’ `ampee essence; presence; manifestation of a presence. n. mojo. See: amɨr. n. 1 • hue or shade of amɨr-amo `amɨr-`amo 2 • aura; n. rice variety, very sticky, from which the sweetest “`xogrin” can be made, as well as “`ɨtɨɨ” cakes. Many Galo enjoy this for breakfast, and “`ampee-`xogrin” is especially enjoyed in summer. Mountain variety is reddish, wet field variety is whitish. n. seed. n. complexion. presence; impalpable manifestation of a presence, as of an animal which one somehow senses to be in the area, but which one has neither seen, heard, nor smelled. homen-pətaa `amɨr-`amo `empaa kumaa. ‘I can’t catch so much as a hint of a bird’s presence anymore.’ See: `amɨr ‘complexion’. ampɨr `ampə rice husk. See: `pəmɨk ‘chaff’. `ambin n. husked, uncooked rice. See: `amo ‘paddy’. n. popcorn; exploded grains resulting from dry-frying raw grains at a high heat. `ambuk `ambə `amə amə Var: `am. n. body hair (in general). See: adum ‘head hair’. Var: `am. n. seed; pit, as a jackfruit seed. Var: `amlii (P). n. pro. like that (thing which is located away from and on the same level as, to the east or west of, or in an unknown location relative to the speaker/hearer). adj. small or young, for males only. Usage: (P). ŋo `nom ammee `yaado. ‘I am younger ammee `amkoo seed 20 `amyaa ayɨr than you.’ boy’. See: `omee ‘young `amyaa n. bad rice, especially dud `him `daggə `tokee. ‘You cover this area (by standing there on guard).’ rice (which has bloomed and gone to seed, but failed to fruit). See: `amsuk ‘field of dud rice’. `ayar n. length, as when measuring. `əə `ayar go ‘a length of bamboo’. `amroo `amlii n. dried-out stalk of rice remaining following harvest of the grains. n. new rice; first rice crop of n. failed rice crop; dud rice adj. 1 • long; tall. `ayar maa. ‘It’s not long.’ 2 • lengthwise. `ayar `bə `bəəduu. ‘(He’s) carrying it lengthwise.’ Syn: `ahoo. the season. `ayup `amsuk crop; crop of rice which has failed to fruit. adj. fail to fruit, of a rice field. n:clf. night cycle. Gram: Classifier for nights, construed as a complete cycle from dusk to dawn See: `ayo ‘night’. n. handful; as much as can `ayum `ŋunuk `ammo `amsuk `huŋŋam kaaku. ‘Our rice field dudded out/failed.’ See: `amyaa ‘dud rice’. ayaa n. love; sympathetic feeling towards; pity towards. ayaa go kaamaa boolo, hir `kuco. ‘If we have no love, we might as well die.’ vt. love someone or something; be held in a single cupped hand. `yumɲi ‘two handfuls’. See: `yum‘Classifier for handfuls’; `yumnam ‘grasp or scoop using one hand’. `ayo n:kin. 1 Var: `ay. 1 • grandmother. Usage: used to refer to or address the mother of one’s mother or father. 2 • mother-in-law. Usage: used to feel kindness and affection toward someone or something, as a parent to a child. ŋo `nom ayaa `duu. ‘I love you.’ ayaa `hilaa `ju. ‘Let’s love one another.’ adj. small; cute; lovable, generally refer to or address the mother of one’s husband or wife. 3 • wife’s brother’s wife. Usage: used to refer to or address the wife of one’s wife’s brother. `ayo of a non-human. ayaa-maabə int. incredible; for goodness sake. Usage: Interjection used to express wonderment, astonishment and possible pity for someone at the difficulty or unusual nature of a particular situation. See: ayaa ‘love; sympathy’. n. area; region. `him `ayap night; night-time. `og `ay `ogo...‘On that night...’ ɲɨjɨɨ aloo-`ayo `bə məəd-məəd `laku `yuuna. ‘They say the old man was thinking day and night.’ 2 Var: `ay. n:time. adj. be night; be night-time. ayor ayɨr n:clf. range, as of mountains. Gram: Classifier for mountain ranges `ayap n. shore. Usage: (P). See: rɨɨyɨr ‘shore’ (L). 21 ayəə arə ayəə ace. See: alum-ayəə ‘dirty’. Usage: Interjection arek `aro `aro adj. sharp, of a blade (not a ayyəə! `araa arak arin int. aya! expressing alarm, frustration or exhaustion. n:rel. inside. caina `araa `tol `eeɲi. ‘It must have been up in China.’ n. cliff. Syn: ərak. Var: ayin (P). n. point). `orok `ə maaj arek `duu. ‘The dao is really sharp.’ 1 n:clfq. bundle of staffs (usually bamboo), 40 by standard. 2 n:time. morning. no `aro dobek dokai? ‘Have you had breakfast?’ bud; just-unfurling leaf of a tree or shrub. n. wish; desire; will. `mɨɨk `aruu `bə `rɨm `tok. ‘Do it according to his wish.’ n. hole; aperture. adj. be morning. aro Var: ayo (P). n. tongue. `aro-komci `aruu aruu Var: `aro-komsi (P); `aro-`rokkom (P). n:time. early morning. See: `aro ‘morning’; komci ‘early morning’. n. breakfast. `aro-dobek `aro-rokom morning’. aruu-agom arum arum arum n. uneven or non-flat terrain; area full of holes and bumps. See: aruu ‘hole’. 1 n. taro. Starchy tuber with a large, water-resistant, arrow-like leaf. n:time. early morning. Usage: (P). See: `aro-komci ‘early Var: ayɨɨ (P). n. plain; flatland. nce. See: arɨɨ-amaa ‘vein’. arɨɨ arɨɨ 1 2 2 in ‘circle of friends’. 3 nce. family. Usage: usu. occurs compound. See: `ajen-arum Var: ayum (P). n:time. `arɨɨ n:clf. staff. Gram: Classifier for staffs, as of bananas, or staff-like objects, such as a tree n. See: amaa arɨɨ-amaa `arɨk evening, particularly after darkness has fallen. arum `əm ŋo `kaajek kumaa. ‘I can’t see clearly in the evening.’ adj. be evening. arum gamgam vein. ‘creeper; tendril’. Var: `aik (P). n. cold, as a sensation or type of weather. adj. cold, to the touch, or of a feeling. `arɨk `ə! ‘It’s cold (out)!’ `duuku. ‘Bit by bit it’s growing dark.’ arɨk arə arə arə `arum n. piled barrier; stable pile (as of stones), as to form a wall or barrier to prevent erosion. n:time. dusk. n:clfq. bundle. Gram: Quantity classifier for bundles of long objects, such as sticks Var: ar. n. price; bride price; dowry. Var: ar. n. odour; bad or good 1 arum-`roorii aree n:rel. 2 top. Usage: (P). Source: Minyong (Adi). See: `taayoo ‘top’. ace. See: apuk-aree ‘hasty’. smell. 3 Var: ar. n. 1 • taboo; restriction on behaviour. 22 `arə `alii 2 • miracle; freak happening; unusual happening; unbelievably strange thing. ar `jaago `lakaa! ‘What an (unexpected) thing!’ vi. be under taboo; be subject to a taboo; be under taboo observance. ŋo `hiloo ar `duuna. ‘I’m observing a taboo today.’ vt. 1 • treat something as taboo; Syn: arbaa. arbaa n. 1 • haunch; thigh; of a human, entire leg extension into Syn: arpoo. animal. including buttock. 2 • hind legs of a four-legged arsi avoid for taboo reasons. ŋo oɲor `əm arəduu. ‘I’m avoiding Sichuan pepper as a taboo.’ 2 • spurn; reject, as a leper. n. mirror; reflecting object of any kind. Source: Hindi. Var: paalaa (P). n. 1 • juice. alaa 2 • broth; cooking juices, as from boiling vegetables. 3 • soup. 4 • fluid. `arə Var: ar; rɨɨsi (P). n. boundary, as of a field or a state. Var: ar-hiɲo. n. arə-hiɲo inauspicious occurrence; freak happening or occurrence which usually carries the undertones of a bad omen, as a sudden passing storm when the sky had been blue or a snake suddenly crossing one’s path. alak 1 n. hand; arm, including the hand. alak `əm hukaa. ‘I washed my hands.’ alak ardə adj. clever; smart; intelligent; quick and busy. ardə dakup dalek `na ɲii ‘very fast and clever person’. ard `bə kegee kaa! ‘Go ahead and run away smartly!’ 1 vi. glance in any direction; look to the side. `bɨɨ `ŋom arkaa `duu. ‘He’s glancing at me.’ 2 vce. miss. Usage: Rare, possibly archaic form now generally occurring only as a compound element. See: alak-aak ‘miss’; alak-acak ‘miss’. alak-aak arnam adj:expr. miss something or someone; feel the absence of something or someone. `bɨɨ `duumaa nammə ŋo alak-aak `duu. ‘(Due to) her not being here, I feel a missing feeling.’ Var: alak-asak (P). adj:expr. miss something; feel the alak-acak arnam arnam 2 vt. drill, as when making a hole through the base of a bamboo section with a knife. render an animal; 3 vt. disembowel, skin, and do whatever else is necessary to break an animal’s body down into usable parts. haunch; entire leg including extension into buttock. n. absence of something lost, misplaced, or which it is felt should be in a particular location, but which isn’t. alap `alap `alii n. wing. adj. slippery. adj. new. arpoo n. novelty; new one; new thing. `alii `əm `baa `ako `garɨɨ `bə `moduu `dɨɨ. ‘They might be 23 alii aloo-`loopoo taking a new one and making it look as though it were old.’ inwardly disturbed. alii n. 1 • seed, construed as an alum ace. dirty. Usage: Rare, possibly instrument of propagation. 2 • heirloom seed. 3 • breeder; animal which is of archaic; generally found as compound element. See: alum-ayəə ‘dirty’. `alum n. clump or cluster of more good quality, and will be used for breeding; stud. 4 • clan; lineage; heritage. or less separable objects, as of grass or a flock of birds. `nəmɨɨ `alum ‘clump of grass’. alii-aŋoo ‘clan’. n. generation. See: alii alum-aɲəə alum-ayəə alo `alo n. salt. adj. dirty. adj. dirty; filthy. alii-anə `alik alik n. seeds, grains and other propagators of various kinds. See: alii ‘seed’; anə ‘leaf’. Var: `alek (P). See: `atum-`alik ‘stout’. ace. adj. uneasy; troubled at heart. See: alik-aek ‘uneasy’. n. bamboo bark; very thin, `alik dark green layer of bark on a stalk of bamboo. alik-aek adj. at one’s wit’s end; driven to the limit; overwhelmed by difficulties coming from outside, such that one’s ability to cope or manage is compromised. `omee `gadd `ə `ŋom alik-aek `doobə `moduu. ‘The kid’s driving me crazy.’ See: alik ‘uneasy’; aek ‘stomach’. dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location very far away and on the same level as, to the east or west of, or in an unknown direction relative to the place of speaking. n. 1 • burning sensation. dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location on the same level as, to the east or west of, or in an unknown direction relative to the place of speaking. ŋo `alo `yubbəə `doona. ‘I always sleep there.’ ŋo `al aamaa `rəm, roonam `paamaa rə. ‘If I don’t go over there, I won’t be scolded.’ `al nam `al ŋo aakaa rə. ‘I’ll go check that house over there.’ 1 aloo aloo n. bone. n:time. day. 2 aloo-pookoo a`luu n. skeleton; also, any bone of a skeleton, whether human or animal. Properly refers to a bone which has been completely cleaned of flesh, tissue, and marrow, with no remaining residue. adj. stripped clean, of a bone; `aluk clean of any tissues. aloo-pookoo `ɲumbə `rɨkaa ku. ‘It has become all bones (free of flesh).’ See: aloo ‘bone’; pookoo ‘skeleton’. 2 • frustration; adj. depression; inwardly disturbed feeling. frustrated; depressed; aloo-`loopoo n:time. noon; midday; time of day when the sun is directly overhead. See: aloo ‘day’; `loopoo ‘midday’. 24 `alokə `ahik-`akek `alokə from or via somewhere or something on the same level as, to the east or west of, or in an unknown location relative to the place of speaking. `alok nam `alok ɲii `gadd `ə `ŋok `ajenə. ‘The people from that house are my friends.’ `alok peeləə tɨt `kee! ‘Put it in that direction!’ dem.pos. Var: `əlɨɨ. n:num. hundred. Usage: (NW). Syn: camrɨɨ. n. 1 • foot; leg including foot. living animal. alə-`pomaa pros and cons; merits and demerits. `nunu agom alə-`pomaəm hɨkkaa `maabə `doola `gəmpee `gobə `gəmməm `yookem. ‘Don’t just blindly join the majority without considering the pros and cons of each point.’ n. adj. real. `hiloo al `jaab `ag `duuna `na. ‘In reality it’s hot today (despite your feelings to the contrary).’ See: jij`jaa ‘real’. `alɨɨ `alə aljaa 2 • foreleg or forepaw of an al`loo animal. 3 • footprint, especially as made by an animal. alə n. good thing; merit. ŋo maaji `bə al go `məədak `na! ‘I think it’s a very good thing!’ adj. good. al `nago ‘a good one’. dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location far away and on the same level as, to the east or west of, or in an unknown direction relative to the place of speaking. n:time. tomorrow; the day following the day on which a deictic temporal centre has been located. `alloo `ne `inlaa `ju. ‘Let’s go tomorrow.’ adv. Var: `alloo-rootə (P). in the future. See: `alloo ‘tomorrow’; roə ‘day after tomorrow’; `tə ‘up there’. `alloo ɲidoo obboolo al hae. ‘It would be good if it would rain.’ alə laben `jaaduu. ‘It’s too bloody good.’ vt. regard or show regard for someone; look kindly upon someone; feel good toward someone. `bɨɨ ŋom `maaj alduu. ‘He really looks kindly upon/feels good toward me.’ `alloo-`rəətə `allɨɨ adj. well; adjective stem used to form adverbs meaning ‘slowly’, ‘carefully’, ‘nicely’, etc. See: alə ‘good’. n. scales. Usage: (P). See: ahɨk ‘scales’. alə-alə Var: al-aləə (expressive variant); `rəəŋam-rəəŋam (P). adj. slow; nice; gradual. al-aləə `bə `mendii kaato. ‘Please repeat (what you have said) slowly.’ See: alə ‘good’. n. forepaw; front leg or legs asik ase! int. scat! Usage: Interjection ace. used shoo! for chasing away dogs. aləə `aso See: `aɲɨɨ-`aso ‘ashamed’. and paws of a four-legged animal, including the shoulder portion. Generally used to refer to the leg as a cut of meat, not as a general term for the leg of a `ahaa `ahik n. cook; chef. Source: Hindi. nce. See: ahik-akek n. remainder; portion ‘remainder’. `ahik-`akek 25 ahin ahək-amək remaining after some portion has been removed. `ahik-`akek `aɲɲii go...`dagduu `pə! ‘I suppose a tiny bit might be remaining!’ `ahee n. 1 • berry. 2 • inner flesh of a bamboo stalk, ahin ahu Var: asin (P). n. liver. i.e. the yellowish part remaining after the thin dark green skin layer has been removed. n:clfq. fours; group or set of four. Gram: Quantity classifier for ahoo n:clf. length of. Gram: Classifier for long, thin things such as rope forming higher abstract numerals on a base of four. Appears to derive historically from a tradition of counting in four positions-per-finger, i.e. 1) fingertip 2) first knuckle 3) second knuckle 4) third knuckle. In theory, any number can be expressed in “`ahu”; in practice, however, only lower abstract numerals are generally so formed. Most often used when counting off items (such as bundles of fan palm leaves) which are naturally counted in fours, or whose higher-order grouping is a standard multiple of four (such as one “`aro” bundle of sticks). ŋo ahu `ahoo n. extent; extension, whether vertical (tallness) or horizontal (long-ness). adj. extended; long or tall, especially of relatively thin items such as ropes, trees or human beings. Usually not used to describe constructed items such as houses. ɲii `ahoo `nago ‘a tall man’. `ahor n. length, as when measuring a house. `ahor `əm `horkaa to. ‘Determine the length (of the wooden beam).’ adj. long. See: `ahoo ‘long; tall’. go dokaa. ‘I ate four of them.’ `ahuk ahup adj. n. scent coming up from or given off by something, as a flower or dead animal. Var: asup (P). n. nest. `ahor-`ayor adj:expr. spindly; long and stringy, like noodles or vegetables boiled with the roots on. See: `ahor ‘long’. n. 1 • origin. disorderly; chaotic; disorganized. pətaa ahup ‘bird’s nest’. ahup ə! ‘I’ve had enough of your roughhousing!’ See: ahup-ayap ‘disorderly’. `ahɨɨ 2 • head of a river. `hibuu-`ahɨɨ ‘river head’. ahɨk ahup-ayap Var: asup-ayap (P). adj. disorganized; messy; chaotic; disorderly. See: ahup ‘nest’; ayap ‘area’; tahup-tayap ‘random noise’. Var: aur (P). adj. loose, as of a Var: asik (P). n. 1 • scales; skin of a fish. ŋoii ahɨk ‘fish scales’. 2 • flake, as of peeling paint. ahək-amək adj:expr. careless. ahək-amək `yookaa! ‘Don’t be careless!’ ahur shirt. 26 `i `iipee I `i pcl. eh? Gram: Tag marker occurring at the end of a sentence, marking the information as something that the speaker is checking with the addressee, to learn his or her opinion about it. no acin `dokai? ‘Have - i `Iici name. 1 • name of a Lare Galo-speaking village in central West Siang district. 2 • name of a river in Daarɨɨ circle. you eaten (believing you have)?’ iijuu n. 1 • front tooth or teeth. Usage: (P). See: aii `ii n. blood. adj. grainy; 1 Var: `hiik (P). containing residue such as sand, as in fish innards or inadequately-washed vegetables. ŋokii ə `iik `duu. ‘The fish guts are grainy.’ 2 • tooth. `iik ‘tooth’. iiɲɨr n. gums (tooth binding in the mouth). `iituu `iik 2 vt. praise done well. `iik `issuu their child praise.’ someone who has Syn: `koik. `ao `əm n. descending slope; falling slope, as a hill from the perspective of one standing at its summit. adj. toothless; missing teeth. `laa. ‘They spoiled through (excessive) iituu iitup iitor iikuu diced bamboo, used as a delicious, sour-tasting flavouring ingredient for many Galo dishes, especially boiled pork and boiled fish. n. 1 • fermented, n. barrier encountered when stretching out or extending the hand. adj. bucktoothed. 1 iinam iinam vi. bask in a fire; warm vt. extend the hand. alak oneself. 2 2 • any dish which has been prepared using “iikuu” (especially boiled pork or fish). `əm iiduu `tokaa! ‘Raise your hand!’ `iinam vie. 1 • descend; move in a iikum `iiko adj. numb, of the teeth (as after a treatment at the dentist). downward in elevation. 2 • move nce. hearth. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `əmə-`iiko ‘hearth’. n. molar; rear, grinding tooth or teeth. south; move southward direction. iipaa n. young bamboo; immature iigam `Iigoo name. Igo, name of a river in lower West Siang. bamboo, which has not yet sprouted branches. Usually marked by a white film on the surface. `iipee n. fermented, sliced bamboo, used as a primary cooking 27 `iipə `itam ingredient. Made from upper part of bamboo shoot. `iipə iibuu n. dried, fermented bamboo chips, to be mixed in with other ingredients as a flavouring agent. n. beak; mouth of a bird or n. flavouring powder made White-fleshed tuber is commonly roasted and eaten, either as a snack or as a hunger crop when rice and corn are not available. Dioscoria alata?. iŋin-takee similar animal. `iiyup -`ik from sun-dried, bamboo. fermented n. variety of tapioca, whose rhizomes are thought to spread like ginger. Dioscorea composita?. See: iŋin ‘tapioca (variety)’; takee ‘ginger’. n:time. now. `ij `ne inrə. ‘I’ll go in a minute.’ `iji vs:adv. separate the inner and outer layers of a stalk. Gram: Result suffix relating to the separation of inner and outer layers of a stalk-like or pole-like thing, as when stripping a seedstalk, stripping the skin from a leg, or removing the excrement from intestines by running the fingers tightly across the length. n:kin. grandmother. Usage: (P). Syn: `kakam. See: ɲikam `ijjaa adv. now; the present; the present time; the time of speaking; just now; in a moment; a moment ago. `ijjaa `rem? ‘You mean now?’ `ijjaa dooɲi, `ijjaa ɲidoo. ‘One minute it’s sunny, the next it’s raining.’ name. name of a river in Likabali area. ikam `ikii Iɲci ‘grandmother (P)’. n. dog. iɲɲa! `ikii-hobee -ik...-ek n. asshole; bastard. Usage: derogatory. See: `ikii ‘dog’; vs:advsr. fully; not leaving any remainder. Gram: Split result hobee ‘monkey’. suffix indicating that an action is carried out fully or completely, not leaving any remainder. `rən `ruu `ə inik inek kaa. ‘Everyone of those who were there left.’ `igin int. yuck! ugh! The gall! The nerve! Usage: used to react to a behavioural transgression on the part of the addressee or another person, as when one has negligently dirtied one’s clothing or when one admits not knowing something which it is clearly one’s duty to know. A: `saa tɨɨkai? B: maa, `yəəcin `moji maa. A: iɲɲa! ‘A: Did you have your tea yet? B: No, no-one has made it for me. A: The gall (what contemptible behaviour)!’ n. element of a loin loom, a stick used for stretching the cloth horizontally so that it will not collapse. Found immediately above the point where the “`tapin” is to be thrown over, and immediately below the “`taapə” bunching tool. Syn: kobdaa. n. variety of basket; large, long densely woven conical basket used for carrying small things in large quantities, such as rice paddy. n. variety of shapeless, multi-pronged rhizome which produces a very long climbing vine with heart-shaped leaves. `itam iŋin 28 itum-`gaalum `innam (1) itum-`gaalum variety of bumblebee, fully black, very large with a sharp-looking stinger, living alone, usually nesting in human houses. Var: hitum-`gaalum. n. 1 India. Source: English. indəə nce. 1 • late-grower. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tain-indəə ‘mushroom 2 • short-grower; grown short, as variety’. of a plant. `itə n. variety of ritual chant, as performed at a “`toguu” mithun sacrifice. innam (1) vie. 1 • walk. `itə 2 n. variety of bee. `idum `idɨɨ -in n. variety of wasp, larger than an “ilo”, which makes a hive in the soil. n. nosebleed; bloody nose. vs:adv. forward. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the suffix moves forward in the process of or as a result of bringing about the action indicated by the verb. dain `tok! with an activity. Non-motion-denoting sense similar to English ‘go on/ahead (with a task)’. aken-aken ə `menləə innamə “ɲɨɨɲi no `ort `kee, `ɲɨo no `ort `kee.” ‘One by one they went on saying, “cousin, you distribute, nephew you distribute.” go; go to someplace, moving away from a point of reference. inee `kukaa! ‘Go away/be gone!’ no `bolo `yoo `mot `bə `induu `eeko? ‘What are you going down there to do?’ vt. go to a place, as when it is 2 • proceed ‘Put your foot forward!’ acin `əm `ŋun `pucəə gər `laa, doin kunamə `na! ‘We wrapped up the rice (in leaves), and ate it on the way back here.’ `moin proceed with something; go forward while engaged in something; go along doing something. vi. vt. do. Usage: (P). See: `rɨnam inam inam 1 ‘do (L)’. v:c.arg. grow up. Gram: 2 Generally occurs with preceding adjective “kai” ‘big’ `aɲɲii `na anticipated that one must make a one-off trip for some particular reason, or when that trip forms part of a series of trips or other related events. ŋo `bɨɨk namm `əm inrə. ‘I’m making the round to his house (to call him in turn for reciprocal labour).’ no `yəək `iŋko `lola `int `duuko? ‘With whom are you going?’ dooluu gollo ŋo kai-`icaa to. ‘I grew up in a small village.’ ŋo `hogo `əi kai-ikaa. ‘I grew up right here.’ `innam (1) `Intə name. name of a river in n. India. Source: English. n. Indian; person Likabali area. indiyaa indiyan from vt. cut something by sliding it across a fixed blade, (manipulating the item-to-be-cut rather than the blade itself). Usage: often used to describe the cutting of intestines, which are difficult to cut against a surface due to the strength of its sinews (and are more easily cut by applying pull-tension from either 29 innam (2) `isi-`hilə end while moving across a fixed blade). adin `əm `iŋkaa. ‘They prepared (by slicing it across a fixed blade) the large intestine.’ variety of wasp, making a hive like a football, hanging from a tree branch. See: ilo ‘wasp’. innam (2) vt. separate the inner ilo-`pumpaa 2 • variety n. 1 • beehive; hive of the “ilo” bee. of hive-dwelling, honey-making bee. See: ilo ‘wasp’; `pumpaa ‘beehive’. Var: illo. n. exposed penis tip. and outer layers of a stalk-like or pole-like thing, as when stripping a seedstalk, stripping the skin from a leg, or removing the excrement from intestines by running the fingers tightly across the length. illə isak `isi `ijjup n. bow, of a bow-and-arrow. Usage: (P). See: ɨrə ‘bow (L)’. Var: `is. n. water. vi. sheathed; of a staff, covered via an outer layer, as a closed umbrella or a limp penis. vt. sheath a staff. `isi-`opoo n. drink; thing for drinking. See: `isi ‘water’; `opoo ‘liquor’. n. fisherman. See: `isi ‘water’; ɲigam ‘hunter’. n. innam-kennam `ipin ipuk Ippə `imik coming and going. See: innam (1) ‘go’; kennam (2) ‘flee’. n. n. homestead; `isi-ɲigam `isi-taaɲi-`taaree See: `isi ‘water’. dragonfly. home. nam `ipin go ‘a home’. n. bamboo husk. Usage: (P). See: `əə-akuk ‘bamboo husk’. name. a kind of Galo nickname. Var: `miram (P). n. fireplace; n. variety of termite. `isi-`pəjap `isi-`bɨci n. wild duck. See: `isi ‘water’; `pəjap ‘duck’. Var: `isi-`bɨsi (P). n. hearth. variety of non-poisonous water snake. See: `isi ‘water’; `bɨci ‘small snake’. `imbə-koorə irom `ilo `isi-`robəə `isi-rɨkə n. male boar; male wild pig. n. variety of cliff, at the base of which water is found. See: `isi ‘water’; `robəə ‘cliff’. n:time. fifth moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-may to mid-June. Traditionally identified as the time when cicadas start to sing. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of June. n. wet rice field; paddy field. See: `isi ‘water’; rɨkə ‘field’. n. lake; pond; generally, `isi-`hilə the water collected at the base of a waterfall. See: `isi ‘water’; `hilə ‘pond’. ilo n. variety of wasp. Var: ilo-gaapuu. n. ilo-gaapoo 30 `uii uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ U `uii n. 1 • spirit; demon; ghost. - u `pɨnam `ə `yordii `pɨboo `laruu maa. ‘The crow of a single cock cannot awaken the whole village. The barking of a single dog cannot blanket the whole mountain.’ (i.e., a man alone cannot conquer the world). bitch. term used to insult a person when very angry. 2 • bastard; Usage: pejorative `uii-`ao n. magician; bringer of new, unfamiliar and possibly dubious items or technology. n. gibberish; language `uii-agom uuk n. variety of belt traditionally which cannot be understood by ordinary people. See: agom ‘speech’. worn by women, made from a special type of fern. `uukoo n. aperture; hole through `uii-`orom `uii-ərək n. ghosts and spirits of various kinds. See: `orom ‘spirit’. which light is able to pass, as the holes in a wall. vi. have a hole, as a bag or basket; develop a hole. `igin `ə `uukoo `rəm, `ammo `hurduu. ‘If the basket has a hole in it, the paddy spills out.’ n. demons and spirits of various kinds. See: ərək ‘pig’. Var: `uii-`koŋur (P). n. variety of long-snouted rat. See: `kobuu ‘rodent’. n. `uii-`kobuu `uii-tain variety of large, poisonous mushroom. See: tain ‘mushroom’. `uukoo-`uuloo various kinds. n:expr. holes of adj:expr. ridden or interspersed `uii-mooraa n. spiritual underworld; spiritual netherworld; the next world. n. mole. n. `uii-`məəram with holes of various kinds, as of a wall through which light enters and is directed every which way. cɨkc ə `uukoo-`uuloo `duu. ‘The wall is interspersed with holes of every kind.’ `uii-yapər-`poomɨr -uu moth. See: yapər-`poomər ‘butterfly’. `uugee uugɨɨ uugɨr uucɨɨ n. crack or slit between the vs:adv. awake. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject (of an intransitive verb) or the object (of a transitive verb) wakes up as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. awaken someone by bamboo planks making up the floor of a house. n. back, of the human body. n. hunchback. ace. glowing. See: uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ koguu crowing, as a rooster. `rokpo `pɨken kognam ə `doaa koguu `laruu maa; `kiibo `dorken ‘dim’. uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ adj. dim, as of a small light which doesn’t carry much voltage. 31 uujii unam uujii uun adj. shallow. Usage: (P). n. wound; lesion. uun gənam ‘to have a wound’. vi. 1 • awake; awaken; be traditionally worn around the waist by women. `ugin `ugjii n. vulture. uunam awake. `uut `kukee! ‘Wake up!’ 2 • shine, of a light, of the moon. Usage: Not generally used to nce. See: `ugjii-`birii ‘horned owl (variety)’. n. variety of horned `ugjii-`birii owl. describe the shining of sun, unless a ‘shine’ result suffix “-kak” completes the stem. dooɲ ə uukak `duu. ‘The sun is shining brightly.’ 3 • be a hole, particularly of hole `ugnam vi. 1 • shout when angry. 2 • grunt; growl, of an animal such as a pig or barking deer. homen ə `ukkaa. ‘The tiger growled.’ through which light is shining or might shine. `uŋŋaa ujuu n. baby; infant. `uucaa uun-tarə vi. rise, of the sun. n. wound; injury. uun-tarə go `paarə. ‘You’ll get an injury.’ See: uun ‘wound’; tarə ‘injury’. Var: uujii (P). adj. shallow. Syn: rɨɨyaa. adj. deep, as of a river; n. spring action trap used to catch small animals, including a rod which is tensed and, when tripped, traps a small animal in a noose. Gram: generally takes associated verb “tennam (1)” ‘fix spring action trap’ uuyaa `uurɨɨ `ujuk udu n. ladle made from a gourd. deeply penetrating, as of one’s thought into a particular problem or topic. `hɨgɨ `iss `ə `uurɨɨ `duu. ‘This (section of the) river is deep.’ nce. See: uduu.`buduu ‘horned owl (variety)’. uduu uduu 1 n. section of bamboo, such as is used as a container for drinking rice beer. 2 n. sitting and sleeping area for unmarried people. `uuloo uulɨɨ adj. shining downward. glowing See: uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ ‘dim’. ace. nce. red. uduu-aruu `ukcɨɨ See: `ukcɨɨ-`baalɨɨ ‘firefly’. n. hole running through a section of bamboo. See: uduu ‘bamboo section’; aruu ‘hole’. n. `ukcɨɨ-`baalɨɨ Var: `uksɨɨ-`baalɨɨ (P). n. firefly. uduu-`buduu horned owl. See: `ukpaa-`pendaa n. orchid. variety of `ukpaa nce. udum unam ‘orchid’. n. variety of lidded cylindrical cane container. `ukpaa-`pendaa ugii n. belt of bronze discs vi. boil; be at boiling point. `iss `ə `uduu. ‘The water’s boiling.’ 32 unə urnam unə n. wound. `umnam 1 vi. grunt, especially of a untraa -`up Var: umtraa (P). n. orange (citrus fruit). Source: Assamese. vs:adv. shatter; smash. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something smashes or shatters as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. shatter; smash; cause large animal of any variety; bark, of a barking deer. `hodum `ə `umduu. ‘The barking deer is barking.’ `umnam `umnam boil something in water to cook it. ŋo pɨpp `əm `umkaa. ‘I boiled the eggs.’ 2 vt. `moup 3 vt. hold something in the something to become smashed. ŋo `hɨm `moup kaa. ‘I completely destroyed it (of a glass).’ `upuk `upə n. arrow, especially the mouth, especially of a liquid such as water. `opoo `əm `uŋkaa `tokee aɲɲii go. ‘Give the liquor a good taste (by holding it in your mouth for a time).’ shaft. Var: `upo (P). n. sitting mat, traditionally made from woven bamboo. vt. umnam vi. be humid, of the weather. taləə `hiloo `umduu. ‘It’s humid today.’ vt. cause someone or something ubnam grope; feel around blindly, as in dark or in dirty water. ŋo `igin `əm `ubduu. ‘I’m groping around in the igin basket.’ to experience or feel humidity, of the weather; of the heat of a hot day, to affect someone. taləə `ŋom `ɲum `umdak `ben. ‘It seems I’m the only one being affected by the heat.’ -um numr. three. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier expressions See: aum ‘three’. umbitaa `urum `Urci n. papaya. Source: Assamese. adj. brittle. `əə `hɨgɨ `urum `duu. ‘This bamboo is brittle.’ name. son of “`Naur”. Sixth descendant from Abo Tani. `um- clfqr. Classifier for mouthfuls, of liquid especially. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `umɲi go ‘two mouthfuls’. See: `aum ‘mouthful’. urnam um uh-huh. giving an affirmative reply to a polar (yes/no) question or generally indicating agreement or positive comprehension of what’s being said. orange. See: untraa ‘orange’. n. Usage: (P). int. yes; Usage: Interjection vi. shimmy through; crawl in an irregular and snakelike manner, as when negotiating a narrow tunnel or moving stealthily between trees, as when hunting. umtraa carry, push or otherwise transport an object lengthwise, as when hefting a bamboo pole or rafter into place. `əə `əm `urcaa `tokee! ‘Heft up the bamboo (pole)!’ vt. 33 `urnam us! `urnam vt. collect. `poon `urgoo rə. `uryar `uluu us! n. crossbeam running the n. boat. ‘We’ll go around collecting “`poonə” from everyone (to make a common batch of rice beer).’ length of a Galo house. urpoo n. crossbeam running the breadth of a Galo house. int. shoo! Usage: Interjection used for driving away chickens or other birds. 34 `ee `eegom E `ee -ee n. excrement; shit; poop. vs:adv. away. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the subject goes away from some point of origin as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Generally used with third person subjects only, not with first or second. `yoolo `bəree inee `ko? - e Gram: Perfective copula used to connect two nouns, a noun and an adjective, or a noun and a nominalized clause. Indicates that the relation between them used to exist, but no longer does. ŋoee `na. ‘Where might he have gone away to?’ `bə `yoolo bittər eeb `dɨɨ? ‘Where might (the river) peter out?’ vs:mod. Hortative/imperative suffix usually occurring on a motion predicate, with the overall sense ‘do this, going away from here in the process’. Gram: Must be followed by a Hortative particle of some kind, such as Inclusive hortative “`juu” or Polite hortative “kee”. `al aakaee `jukaa. ‘It was me (who did it).’ `yool `eela kaarɨk `hikko? ‘Where was it that you met him?’ `ao gaddə, ŋo `ago eeku baa, `ihi go huttaa `lapə. ‘Hey, boys, I’ve gotten all hot and sweaty, I’m going to go take a bath.’ `hogo, `ək kaamaee `ɲii. ‘That kind of thing probably wasn’t happening here.’ ŋo rɨk insae `na. ‘I should have gone to the field (but didn’t).’ eenam eenam vt. bind, as with rope. ŋo 1 ohoo `əm `eeduu. ‘I’m binding it with rope.’ ‘Let’s go take a look.’ inee `kukee! ‘Go away from here!’ vs:asp. Anterior suffix to a non-perfective predicate in “-`duu”, “-`dak” or “-doo”. Gram: Situates an event at some time prior to the current time of focus, as when skipping backwards within a narrative to retrieve a previous time of focus (much like English past perfect). Requires a non-first-person subject in both declarative and interrogative sentences, as well as in adverbially subordinated clauses. v:c.arg. solicit reciprocal 2 labour. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “rɨgee” ‘reciprocal labour’ See: rɨgee ‘reciprocal labour’. eenam 2 v:c.arg. harvest new rice by stripping the ripe grains off by hand directly into the basket. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`amo” ‘paddy’. `amo eenam ‘strip-harvest new rice’. `eenam allo `cɨrtə-`cɨrtə `duee. ‘The salt was very big.’ `bɨɨ doddee. ‘He ate it (at some point previously).’ `bɨɨ ager `rɨdkee. ‘He was working (I don’t know whether he finished or not).’ vi. excrete; defecate; shit. `eebaa `bə `eet `kee! ‘Shit quickly (why can’t you)?’ n. latrine; toilet; place where it is possible to deposit excrement. Var: `eegom-`eeyom. vt. defecate improperly; defecate `eeko ee `eegom cop. was; had been; used to be. 35 `eejik `ennam-kaanam in a place other than where one is meant to, as in one’s trousers, or inside the house. `eegom `tuuku `lakaa! ‘He’s shit in the house, for heaven’s sake!’ See: `hɨɨgom ‘urinate improperly’. variously shaped but not conical, like a large version of a “`cuukaa”. Used for storing raw rice beer and tapioca, among other things. `ejə n. clothing. `eejik `eehɨɨ adj. have diarrhoea; have `ejə-`orok loose motion. adj. constipated; unable to effect a bowel movement. `bɨɨ `eehɨɨ `duuku. ‘He’s feeling constipated.’ Var: `ejə-`oyok (P). n. wearables; wearable items, such as clothing and sheathed daos. See: `ejə ‘clothing’; `orok ‘dao’. ejjum `eepik n. dung; excrement of an insect, especially as deposited on the surface by a burrowing insect, such as the mud-piles excreted by burrowing earthworms. n. variety of beetle, flying, with horns. See: cunik ‘beetle (variety)’. n. vt. wring; twist with force, as water from wet clothes. `ejjəm ejjum rə. ‘I’m going to wring out the clothes.’ n. variety of broadly arrow-leafed tapioca (taro). Var: ensi (P). n. variety of tree. `eɲə eɲci `eepik-cunik `eepik-tain Flowers bloom in March-April and are used in the “moopin” festival. Leaves are also used in ritual functions. variety of mushroom, gilled with a small hat, growing on cow dung, of no use-value (Assamese “gubor”). See: tain ‘mushroom’. Var: `eemo (P). n. traditional n. anus. -en vs:adv. raise. Gram: Directional suffix with the basic meaning ‘raise’, generally in the sense of vertical rather than sloping motion. daen vi. sit upright; positioned upright. `tok! ‘Raise your foot!’ `duen be `eemu `eeyuu `eerin -ek variety of blanket. `ennam (1) Var: `eeyin ~ `eein (P). n. anal sphincter; rim of the anus. vs:adv. mock. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject carries out the action indicated by the verb mockingly or as to mock someone else vt. mock someone. vt. 1 • feel, in both physical and emotional senses. `empaa maa! ‘I can’t feel it (of a mosquito bite)!’ ŋo `endɨr `əm `enduu. ‘I feel tortured by burdens.’ 2 • sense; notice or feel by means of the senses (rather than by touch). kaek eken `ennam-kaanam vt. Var: ekken (P). n. variety of loose, tub-like bamboo basket, observation; determination; object of study. See: kaanam ‘look’. 36 `enlɨk elektri-`louu `enlɨk like someone; feel something special towards somebody. vt. vt. be fed up; have had ennam (2) occurs 2 in vt. wring. Gram: Usually compound See: ejjum ‘wring out (clothing)’. `ensup ennam (2) `epen enough. 1 vt. 1 • scoop or lift with a stick or a sticklike tool, such as a finger (not a full hand). ŋo aalaa `əm `edduu. ‘I’m scooping the broth.’ ŋo tab `pəək namm `əm `eppak rə. ‘I’ll scoop up the shirt (with a tool).’ n. strap used for carrying a baby on one’s back. vt. like; feel kindly disposed toward. Usage: (P). n. door. Usage: (P). See: ərap `emmɨɨ `eyap ‘door’. elektri-`louu n. electric light. See: elektri ‘electric’; `louu ‘light’. 2 • write, using a pen or pencil. Tanii `Niipak `ne `sitii go etto. ‘Tanii wrote a letter to Niipak.’ 37 o oodom O o int. oh; I see. Usage: Interjection - o See: `oin ‘plant (variety)’. indicating that the speaker has been told something which he didn’t know, and which he basically accepts as valid. oen adj. high, of constructed things. `hɨg nam `hɨgɨ `hɨm nam `hɨm oen `yaaduu. ‘This house is higher than this house.’ n. 1 • vegetable; edible plant. 2 • dish; `oi oi nce. variety of bee. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `oi-ɲɨgmaa ‘variety of bee’. n. neutral spirits derived from oo rice beer. `oii n:kin. last child. Usage: used to refer to, but generally not to address, the last/youngest of one’s children. In address, proper names are more often used. `bɨɨ `oii `ə `kuna. ‘He’s the last child.’ See: `ao ‘child’. n. variety of edible plant, with side dish; curry; prepared dish to be eaten together with rice. oo kaamaa! ‘There aren’t any/enough dishes (i.e. for you to be satisfied)!’ ooi! int. what? What is it? Usage: Rejoinder to having been n. variety of mustard, boiled and eaten as a vegetable. See: oo ‘vegetable’; gɨyɨɨ ‘mustard’. Var: `oosoo (P). n. drongo. Bird, of which at least six or seven varieties are found in the Galo area, including Dicurus paradiseus, Dicurus remifer, Dicurus adsimilis, and probably several others. Dicurus spp. n. fiddlehead fern; edible See: oo ‘vegetable’; takaa called from some distance away. oo-gɨyɨɨ `oik spinach-like texture when cooked, slightly tangy, emitting a slightly slippery film. Grows close to ground and abundantly, with leaves about 2cm by 1cm. Pouzolzia spp. `oocoo `oi-ɲɨgmaa n. variety of wasp or similar stinging insect. Nocturnal. See: `oi ‘variety of bee’; ɲɨgmaa ‘blind’. Var: `oin-`taapin. n. variety of thin branching shrub with broad, bitter-tasting dark green leaves, about 5-10 feet high. Leaves are boiled and eaten as a vegetable. Also may be boiled and squeezed for use as a medicine for treating high blood pressure. Clerodendrum colebrookianum. n. variety of plant. oo-takaa fern. ‘fern’. `oin `oodoo n. distance, in the sense of a distant place, i.e. ‘in the distance’; faraway place. `oodoo gollo `kaaduu, `aken go. ‘I have one (friend) in a distant place.’ adj. far; high; distant. `Lɨɨk-Balii `hokkə Guhati ə `oodoo doo. ‘Guwahati is far from Likabali.’ `oin-`taapin oodom adj. high, as of a mountain. oodom `na `moodii ‘high/tall 38 oonam `okə mountain’. names are more often used. oonam or tend an animal; perform animal husbandry; keep a pet. ŋo ərək `əm `ooduu. ‘I’m raising/keeping pigs.’ 2 • clear a second-use field for vt. 1 • raise oko n. any of a family of smooth, broad-leafed, non-woody-stemmed plants (either equal or allied to Zingiberales/Musaceae). cultivation, i.e. one which has already been used in the past and now only has weeds growing on it. ŋo rɨgaa `əm `ooduu. ‘I’m cultivating a non-virgin field.’ Okomiaa n. 1 • Assamese person or people. 2 • Assamese language. Source: Assamese. `okə `oobə `oor adv. nothing but; all and only. `ee go! mənam `oobə! ‘What a load of lies and bullshit!’ dem. 1 • via (that position, which is nearer to you than to me). Gram: Addressee-proximate viative demonstrative, used to refer to something which comes by way of a position nearer to the addressee than to the speaker. pətaa ə aruu n. small stick of “taok” bamboo, whittled to a point and concealed in the ground at an angle. A type of defensive trap used for preventing or punishing intrusion. v:c.arg. set a stake impalement `okə `nenduu. ‘The coming out by way of (which is closer to you instead of any other could have exited).’ bird is that hole than me, way he trap. `oɨɨ ok- adj. low. `hɨg nam `hɨgɨ `hɨm nam `hɨm `oɨɨ `yaaduu. ‘This house is lower than this house.’ clfqr. Classifier for grasped handfuls; as the result of clutching into a pile of leaves. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. okpii ‘four heaping handfuls’. See: aok 2 • from (that thing or fact, which has just been mentioned). Gram: Anaphoric ablative demonstrative used to connect a verb to something which has just been mentioned, as in “it comes from that (thing which has just been mentioned)”. `bɨɨ `ao go bəəto. `ok `mɨɨlen dooku `naana. ‘She had a child. Our lineage proceeds from that (point).’ 3 • of, belonging to or pertaining ‘grasped handful’. to something which has just been mentioned. Gram: Anaphorically-referring genitive/attributive demonstrative used to express a relation between a noun and something which has just been mentioned. `bɨɨ `ao go bəəto. okuu `okur n. variety of edible plant, whose leaves and fruits are both sour-tasting. Var: `oten (P). n:kin. grandchild. Usage: used to refer to, though generally not to address, the (male or female) child of one’s own (male or female) child. In address, proper `ok `ao `ə hikaa ku. ‘She had a child. That child died.’ 4 • of or out of (a total or quantity). Gram: partitive Anaphorically-referring 39 `okkə oɲor demonstrative/postposition used to express a relation between an object and group or set from which it is selected. `ok camɲi `okə, ɨrɨɨ go al for him.’ `ogok ognam n. variety of plant. Bauhinia blakeana. 1 • tie someone or 1 vt. something up; bind someone or something. ŋo hoo `əm ogrə. ‘I’ll tie up the cow.’ maato. ‘Out of that twenty, ten were bad.’ `okkə pos. from a position nearer to the addressee than to the speaker. `okkə `naaboo `tokee. ‘Throw it down from there (where you are standing).’ cnj. then; and then; and so. Gram: Sentence conjunction used to join two sentences, usually showing some sort of consequence or temporal connection between them. 2 • hang, as from a noose. ogen okkə ‘hang suspended, as when temporarily raising an object from the ground’. ognam okkə `rɨlaa...‘From that point onward...’ okkə, ŋo saar `bə `rɨt kuda. ‘Then, I became a teacher.’ `nok `mennam `əm `tarə, okkə ŋo `ajen `əm `meɲji rəku. ‘I’ll listen to what you say, then I’ll go tell (it) to my friends.’ 2 vt. scratch a surface; itch an itch; dig a hole or trench by scraping with nails, as when digging for root vegetables; gather a handful of something semi-solid by scraping, as cooked rice. ŋo kodee `əm `ogduu. ‘I’m scraping the soil.’ `oci `oksɨr vt. hang someone or oneself; kill by hanging. no `ŋom `əpak boolo, ŋo `oksɨr hir ku. ‘If you leave me, I’ll hang myself.’ n. variety of 1 Var: `osi (P). basket, medium-sized, used for measuring, transferring and storing large quantities of rice. Syn: `maci. 2 `oci Var: `osi (P). n. birth pains. `ogo Var: `og. dem.pos. 1 • there, to, toward or at a location nearer to the hearer than to the speaker. `nok `peeləə `ogo `doom `tokee. ‘Make it sit by your side.’ `og `duutok! ‘Sit there (right near where you already are)!’ 2 • at a time which is either past `occik n. knife. Usage: Variant form of “`rokcik”, with no apparent difference in meaning. See: `rokcik ‘knife’. n. disc belt. See: `oɲop ‘disc belt’. Usage: (P). `oɲap `oɲop oɲor or has already been mentioned. `korum `ogo, acc ə `aɲi go kaato. ‘In ancient times, there were two brothers.’ `og gogr `ogo, `pup go `dəəlen to. ‘Just after he finished calling, an owl flew out.’ 3 • then; next; after that; at (that Var: `oɲap (P). n. disc belt; traditional belt made from bound brass discs. n. Sichuan pepper, a variety of thorny and scented tree. Leaves of young tree are eaten as a prized vegetable. Fruits, when crushed-up, have the ability to stun fish, which may then be easily caught. Dried seeds are consumed as a spice, though not point). `ikii `əla omee ə, `ogo, `aɲɲ `ə `maduu ku. ‘The dog and the boy then both went to search 40 `otar `omee as widely as in other parts of Asia. Zanthoxylum sp. (falling).’ `otar `otə Var: `ootar (P). n. complete onam `onam vt. pluck, as tea leaves. ŋo oo idiot; utter nincompoop. n. adult; mature person. Gram: Generally found as a compound element only. n. prime rice beer; rice beer from the first filtration, which is normally both highest in alcohol content and tastiest to drink. See: `poodaa ‘prime rice beer’. `əm `oduu. ‘I’m plucking the vegetables.’ vi. 1 • fall, of an object from a height. Usage: not used to refer odaa to rain falling. `oloo `maab `dei! ‘Don’t fall down, got it!’ 2 • be inclined; be on an incline. `əgə `otuu `duu. ‘It’s very steep.’ vt. bear a child. Usage: poetic, poss. archaic; not accepted by all speakers. n. orphan; parentless child. odo n. slab trap; variety of trap in which the principal trapping element is a raised disc or slab, usually of stone but possibly also of wood. In land animal trapping, refers to a variety of propped trap in which a slab of stone or wood is propped up at an angle, generally by a stick, and in which the area beneath the stone is baited. When a small animal such as a bird or rodent arrives to investigate the bait, it may disturb the prop and be pinned against the earth by the falling stone. In fish trapping, refers to the base element of a “`lɨɨpum” stone fish trap, which generally consists of a heavy flat stone disc slightly raised from the river floor by several other propping stones. Fish entering the trap do so to seek security under the “odo” stone, but are then trapped inside and not able to escape. ŋo oddo `kobuu go `laato. ‘I caught a rat with a stone slab trap.’ adj. far; distant. See: `adoo. `open opo n. winnowing basket; large diameter, shallow basket used for winnowing rice. 1 n. 1 • rice beer, made from filtering heated water through fermented rice. `opoo 2 • liquor or alcoholic drink of any variety. `Opoo `opop traditional name of 2 name. the first entity in the universe. Progenitor of “`poomaa”. n. fermentation starter pellets for rice beer, made of ground mosses and rice, rolled into balls and dried in the sun for two days. Var: `ob. vi. fall down or fall over from a standing position, of a human (not of an animal or a non-living thing). `ob nammə, roksin ə ŋeeku baa. ‘(Because of her) having fallen down, the chicken liver was lost.’ n. kid; youngster. Usage: Normally refers to a boy, `obə `odoo onam `omee vi. fall, of something celestial (rain, snow, or hail). ɲidoo `opin kaaku. ‘The rain has stopped but may also be used to designate a girl. omee agom ‘kid 41 `omee-`ogo `orpuu talk’. omee `ɲijɨr ‘girl’. orii n. wild coriander. Variety of `omee-`ogo childhood. See: `omee ‘kid’; `ogo ‘at that time’. n. adj:expr. childish; immature. See: `omee ‘kid’. n. wifey; little wife. `omee-`oree low-growing flat-leaved herb, with a flavour strongly resembling coriander (cilantro). Eaten as a flavouring herb. Eryngium foetidum. `omee-ɲimə orii-riitak `orok `orom orɨɨ Common term used to refer affectionately to one’s own or another person’s wife. See: `omee ‘kid’; ɲimə ‘wife’. n. wild Eryngium foetidum. n. dao; machete. coriander. omo n. tipped or headed arrow; Var: `urom (P). n. ghost; spirit of the dead; what people will become after they die. n. rice beer from the second filtration, which is not as high in alcohol and not as good-tasting as the first. Syn: `poorɨɨ. n:kin. son. Usage: used to refer to, though usually not to address, one’s son. In address, proper names are more often used. ao-`orə ‘son’. See: `omə ‘daughter’. Var: orsəə (P). n. n. arrow to which an iron or metal head has been fastened. `omor n:time. good old days; salad days; thing or time for which one feels nostalgic. `omor `kaapaa! ‘Long time no see! / Just like old times (to see you)!’ `omor goku `lakaa! ‘It’s just like the old days (when you used to do this kind of thing, which you don’t do for me anymore).’ `orə `omɨɨ `omə green vegetable, general; leafy greens. n. in `orcəə kingfish. Semiplotus semiplotus. n:kin. daughter. Usage: used to ordə-gaaloo Batasio spp. variety of fish. refer to, though usually not to address, one’s daughter. In address, proper names are more often used. ornam `omə-`orə Var: `om-`or. n. children; offspring; sons and daughters. `om-`or go `nenpə lagi `duu. ‘He needs to have children.’ See: `omə ‘daughter’; `orə ‘son’. 1 vi. dry out, as of rice, such that husk can easily come off. `ammo `orduu ku. ‘The paddy is drying out.’ 2 vt. distribute; share. ŋo ɲii `əm maaji `bə `orrəm, pɨɨmaa `rəpə. ‘If I share with many people (my cigarettes won’t last).’ domm `əm pɨɨd `bə orsi `tokaa. ‘Distribute the foodstuffs so that it will suffice (for everyone).’ ornam omnam ŋo 1 vt. sew, as clothing. lalɨk `əm omrə. ‘I’ll sew the shirt.’ 2 omnam bridge. bridge’. v:c.arg. fix a See: hoom hanging ‘hanging `orpuu n. variety of fish, extremely small, never more than three fingers, some with faint 42 orb-takoo ohoo yellow/black stripes along the body and a yellow-black tail, somewhat bunchy. Barilius bendelisis. throughout the Siang foothills (at least), and cooked frequently with “`iikuu”. orb-takoo `olap n. Golden mahaseer, a variety of river fish. Usage: (P). See: tadoo. n. variety of edible plant, `ohik ohoo n. variety of edible plant, similar to “`oik”. Pouzolzia spp. Var: osoo (P). n. 1 • cane, of any variety. 2 • rope, growth and size comparable to Italian basil, which exudes a slippery gel when cooked. Found especially as traditionally made from cane. 43 -`ɨɨ ɨɨm-əəm W -`ɨɨ vs:adv. low. Gram: Result suffix with the basic meaning ‘low’. On non-motion-oriented predicate stems without a transferred O, such as verbs of perception or locution, indicates that the predicated event is directed ‘downwards’ or to a ‘lower’ level or space, as when looking downwards or speaking at a lower level. On predicated stems with a transferred O, indicates that the O is transferred in a downward direction or results in a lower location. Similarly, on predicate stems in which the subject is in motion, indicates a downward direction or lower result to the subject’s motion or location. vi. look downward. `kaɨɨ - w ɨɨjɨɨ n. 1 • herb; herblike plant; weedy, but not necessarily harmful plant. 2 • de-weeding of a field. ɨɨjɨɨ `monam ‘to de-weed a field’. ɨɨjɨɨ-oo n. vegetables and herbs of all varieties. See: ɨɨjɨɨ ‘herb’; oo ‘vegetable’. ɨɨtuu n. saw, as for cutting wood. `hɨɨn-ɨɨtuu ‘saw’. ɨɨnam slither, of a snake or 1 vi. worm; move, of any entity with length. vt. saw, as wood. Gram: Generally takes result suffix “-tuu”, without which the sense may be incomplete. `kaɨɨ `tokee! ‘Look a bit further downwards (and you’ll see it)!’ ŋo `ɨhɨɨ `əm ɨɨtuu rə. ‘I’ll saw the wood.’ `nɨɨɨ push downward. vt. vi. something ɨɨnam narrate; tell a story. 2 vt. `əgəm ɨɨji kaato. ‘Tell him a bit about that (story).’ n. variety of weed with small, purple flowers and an arrow-like leaf. Rubbed raw onto fresh wounds to stop the bleeding. So-called because apparently considered malodorous. Ajaratum coryzoides. See: ɨɨ ‘weed’; `namyaa ‘rotten odour’. n. pile of weeds, whether `togɨɨ descend. aɲɲii go `togɨɨ boolo, rɨkk `əm `paarə. ‘If we go down just a bit, we’ll run into the field.’ vi. sigh. ɨɨ-`namyaa `hagɨɨ ɨɨ `ɨɨk n. weed. Var: `ɨɨk-loolom (P). n. de-weeding instrument, shaped like a ribbon, used to scrape against the ground to remove small weeds which would otherwise take much time to remove by hand. Traditionally made from a bamboo or cane strip; nowadays often made from iron. `ɨɨpum living (as a result of clustering growth) or dead (as after de-weeding a field). ɨɨpoo n. torso; waist; breadth/trunk adj. queasy; slightly upset, of the body. ɨɨm-əəm 44 -ɨk `ɨbuu of the stomach. `ɨtɨɨ n. rice flour, or the bread or -ɨk vs:adv. under. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed or amounts to a movement under something vt. look under something, cake made from it. `ɨtɨɨ-`kabduu `ɨtɨɨ-`tɨɨtɨɨ ɨttum ɨttə n. n. palate; roof of the mouth. See: `ɨtɨɨ ‘rice cake’. n. variety of bird. kaɨk `ɨkoo ɨkɨr `ɨkci `ɨkpə such as a table. Var: raapko (P). n. skewer, as See: `hɨkɨr ‘cold’. n. scrotum; testicles; balls. for roasting meat. adj. vagina. Usage: considered somewhat impolite/offensive. `ɨdɨr Var: `ɨksi (P). n. baby louse. n. medium-sized louse. `ɨkpen n. louse egg; eggs laid by a n. hair clip. louse. `ɨksap -ɨk...-ek vs:advsr. fully; leaving no remainder. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that an action is carried out fully or completely, or without leaving any remainder ŋo `appɨɨ n. variety of bamboo or wooden fish trap, cylinder-shaped, with sharp sticks set as an inward-facing cone so that fish can swim in but cannot swim out. Can be placed anywhere, without depending on current. May be used as an element of a “`lɨɨpum” stone cylinder fish trap, when set against an opening in the stone column. vt. pound, as with a pestle. 1 porok-`luggom `uud `laa, aɨɨ `gə alak ə `dollom `ɨduu. ‘After waking up at the cock’s crow, they pound the paddy by hand.’ vt. crush something into ɨnam `əm `ɲɨɨk `ɲɨek toku baa. ‘I’ve prepared everything down to the last detail.’ `ɨgnam v:c.arg. weed; de-weed an area. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “ɨɨ” ‘weed’ `ɨmɨk ɨnam powder by pounding. vt. shave or whittle an object 2 with length or with long strokes, as facial hair, or when cutting thin bamboo strips away from oneself, especially with blade balanced against finger on other side of wood. Normally, will result in a ‘smooth’ state. ŋo `namm `əm `ɨduu. ‘I’m shaving (my face).’ ŋo ohoo `əm `ɨduu. ‘I’m shaving the cane.’ adj. blistered; being in a blistered condition, or having boils. ɨɨ-`ɨgnam ‘to de-weed; to remove weeds from an area’. `ɨgnə ɨcɨr n. mature louse; egg-laying louse; mother louse. n. variety of thick bamboo barrier, such as is woven to enclose the cylindrical column of stones in a “`lɨɨpum” stone-pile fish trap or to create a diversion barrier as part of “`hapsum-`henam”. `ɨbuu ɨjɨɨ n:kin. grandfather. Usage: (P). See: ɲɨjɨɨ ‘grandfather (P)’. 45 -`ɨr `ɨlɨɨ-`aapuk -`ɨr vs:adv. incite. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that through the action denoted by the verb, the subject incites or provokes the object, possibly with an implication that the object should perform some evil or bad deed vt. misguide with one’s words. `menɨr `rɨɨr someone vt. incite someone to do an evil act; inspire evil in someone. the drink which has been filtered from it; nor can it be used to refer to the strength of bottled liquor, and neither can it be used to refer to the degree of fermentation of a non-alcoholic substance, such as fermented bamboo shoot. agom ə `ɨrn go ‘a precociously talkative person’. `opoo `ə maaji `bə `ɨrduu! ‘The rice beer’s really strong!’ `ɨrnam ɨrɨɨ `ɨrɨɨ Var: ɨyyɨɨ (P). n:num. ten. n. variety of woven bamboo vi. glow, especially of coals in a fire. Gram: Generally followed by manner suffix “-cɨɨ” `əmmə `ɨrcɨɨ 1 medallion, more or less square and flat with two leg-like extensions from the base. Traditionally hung from certain types of sacrificial altar, as for “dorrɨɨ panam”. `duu. ‘The fire is burning brightly (of coals, not flame)’. ɨrnam ɨrɨɨ-ərəə adj:expr. lively; smart. ɨrɨɨ-ərəə `bə `rɨt `pəna! ‘Look lively (don’t be so lazy as you work)!’ Var: isak (P). n. 1 • spread with the 2 vt. hands, especially on skin, as when rubbing powder or lotion on the face or body. `ɨtɨɨ go dumpoo `əm ɨrt `kaa.” ‘Spread rice powder on her head.’ 2 • paint in broad strokes with a brush. ɨrə bow (of a `ɨrnam bow-and-arrow). ɨrə-`upuk `ɨrgaa Var: isak-`upuk (P). n. bow-and-arrow. See: ɨrə ‘bow’; `upuk ‘arrow’. adj. 1 • have fun; have a good 1 • sprout, of plants 2 vi. from the ground or hair from beneath the skin’s surface. `ŋok nammə `ɨrduu ku. ‘My facial hairs are sprouting.’ `am `ɨrnam ‘of rice, to sprout’. Syn: `bugnam. 2 • sweat. `aɨr-ɨrnam ‘to sweat’. time. `mərum `ŋun maaji `ɨrgaa to. ‘Last night we really had a good time.’ 2 • interesting, of an experience. `ɨrtup `ɨrbuk vi. blocked from sprouting. Var: lɨɨgin (P). n. prickly heat; rash caused from excessive exposure to sun and inadequate ventilation in clothing. n. stone; rock. `ɨrgaa `bəəduu. ‘It’s perennially interesting (on any given occasion).’ ɨrnam 1 vi. be potent; be strong; be `ɨlɨɨ well-fermented, especially of rice liquor. Usage: Properly refers to the strength of the mixture while fermenting, not to the strength of `ɨlɨɨ-`aapuk adj. n. stubborn heart; unmoveable temperament. obdurate; obstinate; unresponsive, as someone who 46 ɨlə ɨhɨk just sits around and doesn’t do what one asks. `bɨɨk `aapuk `ə `ɨlɨɨ `bə `rɨduu. ‘He has a heart of stone (i.e., he is obdurate and stubborn).’ See: `ɨlɨɨ ‘stone’; `aapuk ‘heart’. bamboo or any other sort of natural fuel. ɨhɨɨ-kooɲɨɨ n. mongoose variety ɨlə n. boil (eruption of the skin). Var: `ɨsɨɨ (P). n. 1 • wood. or varieties, especially Indian mongoose, but not including civet. Herpestes edwardsi. `ɨhɨɨ ɨhɨk n. cough. ɨhɨk hɨgnam ‘to cough’. 2 • firewood hardwood, deriving from as opposed to 47 `ə `əəka! V `ə 3 - v adjective. In both cases, indicates a relationship which is current or continuing, or hasn’t yet finished. Also follows nominalized clauses, giving the basic meaning ‘this fact is the case’. `bɨɨ `ŋok `ajen `ə `na. pcl. Hey! O! Gram: Vocative enclitic on terms of address, epecially proper names and kinship terms. Often occurs together with go to form an expression of entreaty, as “O my dear so-and-so”. Məyɨr `ə! `lubɨɨ `pool kaad `laree? ‘Hey Meyir! Is there really a month named “`Lubɨɨ”?’ ə following a low/tense word), o (when following a word with a light (CV) final syllable structure, and whose final vowel is /o/). art. the. Gram: Topic marking article, marking a noun phrase in terms of a set of definiteness-like properties, including identifiability, specificity and/or topicality. Also marks nominalized verbs or clauses (usually in “-nam”) which describe background information, especially when summarizing some preceding information as a “frame” to a following sentence. Often, such sentences have a causal inference. Usually marks subjects, but may also be found marking non-subject noun phrases, especially instruments and sources, as “alak ə” ‘with a knife’ and “dooluu `tokk `ə” ‘from the village up there’. Usage: clitic; usually Var: `ə (when ‘He’s my friend, see.’ `ɨlɨɨ `ə `alap `ə, `Kom `tə; `induu `bə `rɨmaa. ‘The stones are slippery up at the Kom River; it’s no good for walking.’ maa, `ŋom `takaa `duubə `ree məənam ə `na. ‘Nothing; I had thought you were asking me (that’s why I replied to your question to someone else).’ `əi pcl. isn’t it? Haven’t you? Gram: Particle indicating that the speaker believes that the mentioned information is correct, but is checking with the addressee to make sure. `bɨɨ acin dokaa, `əi? ‘He took his meal, didn’t he?’ `əor `əə n. bamboo firewood; burning bamboo or bamboo to be used for burning. 1 “leans” phonologically on a preceding word. Unspecified for tone; takes tonal spreading from a preceding word. tabb ə hikaa. ‘The snake died.’ `ŋok acc ə iŋkaa ku. ‘My elder brother has left.’ ŋoii ə rəkaa `hiduu. ‘There are plenty of fish there.’ cop. is; be; am; are. Gram: Imperfective copula. Links two noun phrases, or a noun phrase and an uh-huh. giving an affirmative reply to a yes/no question or generally indicating agreement or positive comprehension of what’s being said. n. bamboo (in general). Var: ipuk (P). n. bamboo husk; the ear-like or sheath-like husk of bamboo found at each branching point. See: `əə ‘bamboo’; akuk ‘husk’. int. oops! Usage: Interjection int. yes; Usage: Interjection `əə 2 `əə-akuk `əəka! 48 əəci `əkə used by a speaker when realizing he has inadvertently misspoken. Usually indicates to a listener both that a mistake was made and that a correction is immanent. 3 • sit oneself down as to rest; əəci name. name of a Galo clan closely related to “`əətə” and “`Ɲodu”, among others. manoeuvre one’s body into a sitting position, in preparation for resting. yaakaa int baa; aɲɲii go `əətuul `duurə. ‘I’ve gone a long way; I’m going to plop myself down here for a rest. əənam `əəcu! `Əətə int. here boy! Usage: Interjection used for calling name. name of a very large dogs. clan of Pugo Galo, found mostly around Along and surroundings. Traditionally related closely to “`Ɲodu”, “`Əəci”, and “Ɲorak” clans, among others. vt. decant; serve out broth from a large bowl or dish to a plate. oo-aalaa `əm əəji `duu. ‘She’s decanting the broth for them.’ int. oh! Sorry! Usage: Interjection expressing guilt and/or lack of intention, as after bumping into someone. əəs! -`ək əət! oops! possibly borrowed from Assamese. When used by Galo, expresses alarm, as well as in many cases an overtone of guilt or embarrassment, as when having blundered and (thereby) caused someone else inconvenience, or when having been caught or found out in one’s efforts to be stealthy and possibly deceptive. “ət!” `məəlaa, kekkaa ku. ‘“Whoops (I’ve been caught)!” she thought, and ran away.’ or shift position via the buttocks, as when shifting around on a chair or pulling oneself across the floor when one’s legs are injured. `og `əin `geekee. ‘Scoot over there.’ vi. 2 • slide, as a landslide; shift as a 1 • scoot int. whoops! Usage: Interjection, vs:adv. disapprove. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject experiences or understands someone’s actions in a negative way `nok tɨɨnam `əm ŋo kaək `duu. ‘I’m seeing the likely outcome of your drinking.’ ‘I’m warning you about your drinking (i.e. it’s too much).’ ŋo `nom `taək `duu. ‘I don’t want to listen to you anymore (you have some ulterior motive).’ -ək vs:adv. displace. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is displaced, bent of of shape or dislocated as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `lɨɨgom `əənam `yubək hikaa. ‘I bent my neck out of whack while sleeping.’ `əko n. old bamboo. n. butt; hip. See: `koonam `əkoo `əkə ‘shift half-body’. dem. 1 • those (things near you). Gram: Addressee-proximate plural demonstrative used to refer to sets of things closer to the hearer than to the speaker. 2 • those (things that were just whole, of a relatively large body of earth, as during an earthquake or landslide. 49 `əkə-`pakə `əgə mentioned). Gram: Anaphorically-referring plural demonstrative used to refer to sets of things that were recently mentioned in a conversation. `muɲɲə nam `əkə-`pakə `lokkə cərəə, `cəkoo, pɨcɨɨ, aruu-agom, `ək `takaam `əm `mato. ‘They started searching in every nook and corner of the house, in pots, in all the holes, (they) searched everywhere in those (places).’ `yaddɨ go aɲ-ɲaməə aarə `dɨɨ, `ək go tuubam hirə. ‘However many women come, that many (baskets) will be kept together.’ 3 • some. Gram: Indefinite plural demonstrative used to refer to sets of things which are mentioned for the first time, which are unspecific, or which are unknown or unidentifiable to the speaker. ŋo tabb `əkə `bɨəm pro. these ones; those ones; that sort. Gram: Anaphroric semblative pronoun; refers back to a definite, previously mentioned referent, identifying it as an exemplar of a type which exhibits some property or characteristic to be mentioned. `ək-`pak agom `talɨɨ maa. ‘I don’t want to listen to that sort of thing.’ əkər Var: gəkar (P). n. fishing pole, construed as a əkər apparatus. ‘pole-fishing’. complete ərnam `əkkə-jaa `əkcəp əkpə int. thank you, as for a gift or an offer of food. n. method of fastening fan palm to shingle a roof. n. method of fastening fan palm to shingle a roof. jikaa. ‘I gave him the (bunch of) snakes.’ ɲii `əkə `induu. ‘Some people are going.’ tamii `opoo `əkkee. ‘There was some (of that) millet beer.’ 4 • of (that thing just mentioned); `əksum `əgɨɨ `əgə n. method of fastening fan palm to shingle a roof. n. axe; especially, axe head (not including handle). See: gɨɨtum ‘entire axe’. 1 dem. 1 • it; that (thing nearer to you than to me); that (thing just mentioned). `əgə `yəkkə `laa? ‘Whose is that (thing which is in the addressee’s possession)?’ `əgə `ree `məroo `gə rənam ə? ‘Is that the one you bought yesterday?’ Itanagar `əgə taləə `yombə `laa? ‘How’s the weather there in Itanagar (spoken from Baasar).’ from (that thing just mentioned). Gram: Anaphoric genitive/ablative demonstrative, used to connect something which has just been mentioned in a conversation to something else which either belongs to it or follows from it. `ək `ləgaab `cemmaa `əku. ‘Because of that (fact), we’ve come to not know.’ 5 • that sort (of thing which is closer to you); that sort (of thing which has just been mentioned). Gram: Addressee-proximate or anaphorically-referring semblative demonstrative used to refer to things which are of the same sort or type as something nearer to the hearer than to the speaker, or which has just been mentioned in a conversation. `ək 2 • so; anyway; then. `əgə, `mɨɨk dumpoo `əm pəətaa `hilaa. ‘So, he included some of his own head (in addition to the mithun head which was already in use).’ Gram: Addressee-proximate or anaphorically-referring demonstrative used to refer to an `garɨɨ `bə...‘In that same way...’ 50 `əgə `əpaa individual thing which is either nearer to the hearer than to the speaker, or which has just been mentioned in a conversation. landslide has occurred. See: rəjak ‘landslide area’. `ədɨɨ adj. incredible; amazing. `ədɨɨ `əgə 2 n. cord of wood; grouping of wood, as the quantity which would fit into a basket when collecting firewood. See: `gə‘Classifier for cords of wood’. `na hottum-horr ə, okkə hobee-pətaa ə, `hot-`hoɲɲo anin-`maabə rəto. ‘Tons of wild animals were here, big and small, in countless numbers.’ əgnam vi. move from side to side; `ənam twist one’s body; scoot to the side. `pətup `ə `əgduu. ‘The container is shaking (of itself).’ vt. shake something, as a cigarette lighter which isn’t lighting properly. `pətup `əm `əgduu. ‘The container is being shaken.’ gaarii ə `ŋom `əgyup `duu. ‘The car is bouncing me to sleep.’ vi. spread, of a rhizome or tuber which grows in shoots from a single place. `əə `ə `ənam `əl `duuduu. ‘Bamboo is spreading everywhere, untended.’ vt. chuck someone or something out willy-nilly, leaving them to their own devices and to fend for themselves. See: `əpak ‘discard’. `ənam-`əpak `əgmik `əgluu `əcom əccə powder found underneath the leaf of a fan palm. See: taək ‘fan palm’. n. n. fan palm grove. taək-`əgluu fan palm grove. `ənɨɨ Var: `əsom (P). int. indeed; I don’t know; I’ve no idea. adj. very speedy; very quick. n. variety of huge bamboo, whose sections are traditionally used as water-carriers. Edible shoots are used to make “`iikuu” and other edible bamboo products. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii. n. cow; female head of cattle, `ənə -`əp Variant of “rəccə” ‘fast (emphatic)’. See: rəcəə ‘fast’. especially one which has already calved. See: əbo ‘cattle bull’. Var: -`p. pros. to. Gram: Dative pronominal case suffix, usually marking the indirect object or recipient of a verb `nok amin `əm `əjo n. variety of bamboo. Main variety used for construction and general utilitarian purposes, especially for making bows. Bambusa tulda. `ətor ətɨɨ `ətɨɨ `ətəə! əttam n. mature, strong bamboo. n. herd of cattle. n. bamboo grove; grove or int. aya! Usage: Interjection of n. sloping cliff; area where a `ŋop `meɲji `lakaa. ‘Tell me your name!’ ŋo `nok amin `əm `bɨəp `meɲji tobaa. ‘I told him your name.’ `hɨm `ŋop `ree? ‘Is this for me?’ stand of bamboo. frustration or resignation. əpaa n. cow path; path formed and used by cows. `əpaa n. middle-aged about a year old. bamboo, 51 `əpak `əm `əpak vt. 1 • throw away, discard or əbar n. variety of long, conical, abandon something. ŋo lalɨk `əm `əpak rə. ‘I’ll throw away the shirt.’ 2 • quit a practice. no `əpak `larəi? ‘Will you be able to quit (smoking)?’ 3 • don’t loosely woven basket with back-straps, used for carrying firewood and other large things. See: `igin ‘densely woven long conical basket’. `əbuk worry about; forget about; never mind. aɲɲi-acc `əm `əpak `tokee. ‘Don’t worry about the bits and pieces.’ such as a husband or wife. n. adolescent female calf; female calf which is just reaching mating age. `əbuk-`buktə go ‘a large female adolescent calf’. n. very large variety of bamboo, mainly found in Pasigat area. Dendrocalamus giganteus (?). See: `tabum ‘bamboo variety’. n. ox; cattle bull; male head of cattle. See: `ənə ‘cattle cow’. n. skirt. 4 • divorce or leave a partner, `əbum `əpin `əpo n. cowhide; cow skin; leather. n. variety of bamboo. əbo əbə `əpə-`tarə n. variety of plant, so named because supposed to smell like a fart. No traditional use-value. See: `əppə ‘fart’; `tarə ‘cane (variety)’. n. fart. `əpp pəənam. ‘to fart’. `əm `əppə `əbak See: pəənam ‘fart’. n. name of a complex, decorated, rectangular ritual object wrapped in bamboo weave with tightly-bound leaf borders. Carried and swung by a shaman or his assistant while chanting rhythmically during a “marii” ritual, and later hung by a purpose-made strap in the granary of the ritual beneficiary. Structure is underlain by four bamboo sections of equal natural size, wrapped in cane weave and leaf, with a “təkom” brass ritual object fixed in the centre and bound by red thread. Beneath the “təkom” a cup containing four dried “ŋopii” fish is mounted. Called “piirə-bagrə” by spirits themselves. `əm əŋgərə; agom ə `yoombə `meŋken `doobə? ‘You say this, he says that - how will you arrive at a consensus?’ `əm `opoo `əm tɨɨt `laa, parəp toku `kaa. “After drinking the beer, start your killing.” marker. pos. 1 • Accusative case (object) Gram: marks definite, non-pronominal, non-proper direct objects, and some indirect objects. pro. it. Gram: Accusative form of an anaphoric non-human/inanimate pronoun no `əm `meŋgərə, `bɨɨ `bɨɨ `bɨɨk `ikii `əm maajib `pagduu. ‘He loves his dog very much.’ 2 • right; yes; that’s correct; that’s absolutely true. Gram: Polite, somewhat deferential means of agreeing with the truth and/or value of what has been said by someone. `əm Var: `m; `om. pos. pos. in or at a habitually-occurring time period which has the quality of a span or duration (rather than a point), 52 `əmak əmnam such as a morning, day, event, or range of time (such as ‘afterward’). `bɨɨ `arrom `naahuu `caaduu. ‘She goes up to the granary in the mornings.’ `poolom ŋo `ləken-`ləɲi `bə `caarə. ‘I’ll visit you once or twice per month.’ moopin `əm...‘at/during Moopin...’ `kookɨɨ `əm ‘in the future/later on’. 2 • pos. when; after. Gram: Temporal subordinator marking a clause construed as a duration or span of time (x) within which or after which something else (y) happens. Exact time specification interacts with the inflection occurring on a verb; most frequently, occurs on a verb inflected in Irrealis “-rə”, with the overall sense ‘if/when (some hypothetical event occurs)’. Very often followed by Topic marker “ə”. we just go ahead and call them “mookaa” in any case.’ `əmə n. fire. `əm `parnam ‘to make n. hearth; area around a fire’. `əmə-`iiko an “imik” fireplace where people can warm their hands. See: `əmə ‘fire’; `iiko ‘hearth’. `əmə-`louu əmnam n. firelight. See: `əmə ‘fire’; `louu ‘light’. vi. be said; be according to someone’s words. Gram: Direct speech reporting verb, with impersonal subject `bɨɨ `yubduu `əmduu. ‘I heard/they say/it is said (that) he’s sleeping.’ “dooɲi-kesso-kello” əmnam `hɨgɨ `yoo `ə kuda? ‘What after all is this so-called “dooɲi-kesso-kello”?’ vie. say; say something. Gram: Direct speech reporting verb, with subject specified ŋo “maa” əmdee `bɨɨk `iidak `əm, `saa `molaa `na. ‘When he comes down, make (him) some tea.’ no acin `dorrəm, `ŋocin `doŋii rə. ‘If you eat (rice), I will also eat (rice) (i.e., I will join you).’ `yumii `rəm `caar ku. ‘If (they’re) tired, (they’ll) go back home.’ `ko `əi kaamaa! ‘I’ve got no way to say “no”!’ 1 • tell someone something; relate or convey a message to someone. Gram: Direct speech reporting verb, with subject and indirect object specified “`nok ind go `kaaruu `əmak `əmum n. penis. adj. 1 • useless. `əmum `duuku. ‘It’s become useless.’ 2 • casual; careless. ŋo `murkoo `əm `əmum `bə `ŋaakaa. wasted the money carelessly.’ vie. ‘I `duuku, no inee kukaa,” `əmduu `nana. ‘“Your time to go has come, you get out of here,” they told her, see?’ 2 • call someone something, as an say something casually, without reflection, precision or care. `ləkɨɨ `og bəəmaa; `iji, kaanamə...asamiz ə “mookaa” əmdoomə, “mookaa” `əmum `duu. ‘We didn’t have (frying pans) before; nowadays, having seen them...it being the case that Assamese call them “mookaa”, insult; call or refer to something by a particular name, as in a particular language. `əkkəm “ŋotup ə” əmdoo `naana. ‘We call that sort of (fish) “ŋotup.”‘. `bɨɨ Aci `ne “`ikii `ə” əmji kaa. ‘He called Elder Brother a dog.’ əmnam Gram: vi. be thus; be like that. Anaphorically (backward) 53 əmnamə `ərnam referring verb with the basic function of connecting some previously mentioned information with some following information (see related entries) `əmlaa əmnamə cnj. so; anyway; then. əmnəmə, `nok `ao `gadd `ə `maajib `kaanek `ə əmnamə, `kohuk `ə kekkaa ku! ‘So then, having told her “your children are very ugly,” the dried-up leaf ran away!’ pro. 1 • like that (thing or cnj. 1 • thus; that; like that; in that way. Gram: Complementizing conjunction usually used to link information to a verb of speech, thought, or perception “doryaa `yaana `na,” `əmbə `əmlaa `bɨɨ `mento. ‘“It was the smaller one,” he said (like that).’ `iji `yəə `dɨɨ aadee `kunna `əmlaa `məəduu. ‘Now who could it be? they thought.’ `əm `bɨɨ hocər ə `əmlaa `cemmaa. ‘He didn’t know it was a stag.’ 2 • because; for that reason; for some reason. Gram: Complementizing conjunction used to link a cause with an effect, or an action with a purpose. `aci `doona manner which is nearer to the hearer than to the speaker). `əmbə `rəmaab `kaa. ‘Don’t do it like that.’ that (thing that was previously mentioned or manner that is under attention). `əmbə rɨku nammə...‘It having in the end happened like that...’ 2 • like `əmla, `hiloo `həmbə `kuuduu `kunna. ‘Because of illness, today I’ve become thin like this.’ ərak ərap `ərɨɨ `ərəə n. steep cliff; sheer slope. -`əmbə vs:nf. in the way that V is/was done. Gram: Semblative subordinating verb suffix `ɲipak adj. steep, as of a cliff or slope. Var: `eyap (P). n. door. n. bamboo grove. `gə `rɨəmbə...‘as the non-hill-tribals do...’ `hoɲɲo `cin `kanoo `rəm `pɨrsin `kogəmbə `kogduu. homen `əcin `kanoo `rəm taakuu `menəmbə `menduu. ‘If a wildcat is hungry, he’ll crow like a jungle fowl. If a tiger is hungry, he’ll speak like a dove.’ adj. seasoned; of wood, well-seasoned and ready to burn well. `ɨhɨɨ `ə `ərəə `duu. ‘The wood is nicely seasoned for burning.’ adj. alive; still alive; not yet Var: eek (P). n. pig. ərəə ərək `əmbə-pambə pro. that sort; stuff like that. `əmb-pamb `rɨyoo `kee. ‘Don’t do that sort of thing.’ See: `əmbə ‘like that’. dead. ərək-taɲi `ərtak Var: eek-taɲi (P). n. tree fern. Syn: taci. See: ərək ‘pig’. əmbə-rɨnamə cnj. anyway; so then; in any case. Var: əmbə rɨnmə. cnj. in that case; if that is so. n. fragment of bamboo; chopped-off piece of bamboo. v:c.arg. cut a strip from the back of an animal. Gram: Generally əmrəm `ərnam əmrəm, “`ajen `bə”...əmt `kaa. ‘In that case say “as a friend”.’ occurs with associated noun “`aər” ‘strip of back flesh’ `aər-`ərnam ‘to cut a strip from the back of an 54 ərnam ə-hə! animal’. See: `aər ‘strip of back flesh’. ərnam throw underhand, as when passing a box of matches from person to person over a distance. birii go ərji `kaala. ‘Toss me a cigarette.’ vt. 1 • toss; making “guugaa” (Jew’s harp), and for many other types of utilitarian purposes. `əhap Var: `əsap (P). n. net used for trapping, particularly a fishing net. `əhap-ərnam ‘net-fishing’. 2 • fish with a pole. `bɨɨ əkər-ərduu. ‘He’s pole-fishing.’ ə-həə! 3 • drape or toss over the shoulder, as a shawl. Not used to describe draping clothes over a line. n. breeding cow; breeding bull; əlii cattle used to establish a line. `əluu `əso 1 n. bamboo grove. `əə `əluu ‘bamboo grove’. n. Oy vey! expressing surprise at something unexpected having happened, or frustration at having been victimized or put out by the actions of another, depending on the intonation used. ə-həə, `ŋok tayɨɨ-tamaa `əm ɲitɨɨ-homennam, ŋo lagi dooku. ‘Aya (what have you done)! My fly, my guardian angel, I want it back!’ int. uh-uh; nope. Usage: Interjection expressing a int. whoa! Usage: Interjection variety of edible underground plant, which can be borne as fruit from mature stem. Reportedly hairy, non-sweet-tasting. variety of thin bamboo 2 n. (Bambusa pallida). Used in house construction, for arrows, for ə-hə! negative response to a polar (yes/no) question. `əso 55 -k `kaacer-`kaabee K -k Emphatic augmentative suffix to an imperative sentence. pcl. Gram: Has the function of rendering the sentence more insistent, abrupt, and possibly rude. agom `meɲyok! - k found on imperative sentences. Marks a proposal as one which the speaker believes to be a good idea, which the addressee is urged or advised to go along with as a matter of immediate or future practice. Var: `kaa. gərəp `tokaa! ‘Get up ‘Shut up! Don’t say another word!’ `opin `motok! ‘Let (the rain) stop (before you go out)!’ -kaa has/have (been, 3 vs:asp. gone...). Gram: Perfect aspectual suffix, indicating that an event is finished or completed, but yet has some effect on, bearing on, or relevance to a present state of affairs. Usually describes an event which has happened relatively recently to the time of speaking, and from which some event-residue is remaining somehow. `mɨɨ dooluu `caakaa. (it’s time to wake up)!’ `ŋom `den `abbom payoo `kaa. ‘But since I’m the father, don’t kill me.’ məəɲɨɨ məəcoo kumaa `bəkaa! ‘Don’t y’all go mindin’ now!’ -kaa vs:adv. try; see what happens; see how it goes. Gram: Aktionsart ‘He’s gone to the village (and is still there).’ `bɨɨ `caamaa kaa. ‘He hasn’t gone up there (despite having been expected to).’ ager `rɨnam `ə `ŋom `kanoo `mokaa. ‘Working has made me hungry.’ suffix indicating that the action denoted by the verb is carried out tentatively, as with an goal of seeing the result. In an imperative sentence, usually has the related meaning ‘do this for me for just a minute, won’t you, I’m busy’. `əm `laakaa to. -kaa on; against. Gram: 4 vs:val. at; Applicative suffix usually occurring on intransitive activity verbs. Adds an object ‘at’, ‘on’ or ‘against’ whom the action indicated by the verb is directed. no `ŋom `ɲɨrkaa `duu ‘(Go ahead and) grab those for me.’ `əmbə `rɨkaa to. ‘Try to do it like that.’ `al aakaee `jukaa. ‘Let’s go over there and take a look.’ dokaa tɨɨkaa vt. taste. dokaa `tokee! ‘Have a taste (of this food, to see if you like it)!’ vt. sip something, to taste it. tɨɨkaa `tokee! ‘Have a sip (to see how it tastes)!’ `lakaa. ‘What the hell are you laughing at me for?’ `rokpo `roŋn `əm kokkaa `duu. ‘The rooster is crowing at the hen.’ `kaaŋam `kaacak `kaacer -`kaa vs:adv. cool down. Gram: Result suffix indicating that someone cools down as a result of the action denoted by the verb. `iŋkaa `tokee. ace. See: `kaayum-`kaaŋam Var: `kaasak (P). adj. bitter. nce. See: `kaacer-`kaabee n. ‘beautiful’. ‘Go cool down.’ `kaa way). pcl. you should (do it this Gram: Advisative particle ‘woodpecker’. `kaacer-`kaabee variety of 56 kaajam `kaanam woodpecker. See: `kaabee ‘larger goldenbacked woodpecker’. kaajam n. horizontal roofing beam, vt. look at; watch. `ɲijɨr `gaddəm `kaalaa `ju. ‘Let’s watch the girls.’ running from end to end of a house in a parallel series from the crest of the roof to the sides. Forms the horizontal aspect of a roofing frame, to which fam palm leaves are attached to form the roof. kaek kaɨk vt. mock someone. vt. look under something, such as a table. kaakaa int. let me see; let me have a look at that. adj. beautiful; pretty. kaatɨr `kaatə `kaatə 1 nce. See: `luktɨr-kaatɨr `kaaken `kaacen ‘snack variety’. n. variety of ritual chant. 2 n. lower shelf of a “`rapko” fireplace shelving complex. The largest and main area used for storage of all manner of things, such as pots and pans, cooked food, etc. vt. 1 • recognize someone; know someone; have seen someone before. `ŋom no `kaacen do? ‘Do you recognize me?’ 2 • understand what one sees. kaanam exist; have. Gram: 1 vi. Simple existential verb. When used with a single subject, gives a plain sense of existence ‘exist’ or ‘there is’. When used with a double subject, or with a Genitive-marked possessor (optionally Locative-marked), gives a sense of possession, as ‘N have/has’ (literally, ‘concerning N, X exists’ or ‘X exists (in) N’s possessions’ cainiz `akor `əm ŋo `kaacen `əi maa! ‘I can’t understand the slightest bit of Chinese writing!’ kaatom show someone something. Yompaa `bɨk `ao `əm Tanii `ne kaatom rə. ‘Yompaa will show his baby to Tanii.’ vte. adj. ugly. `ŋok `ɲiloo `ə `kaanek `kaapaa `ŋunuk `lo `ɲə kaamaa. ‘We don’t have any of those at our place.’ or ‘There aren’t any of those at our place.’ ŋo innam go kaar `əm, `laaji rə. ‘If I happen to go, I’ll get you some.’ `ŋun kaamaa `dakkom, dooluu `hɨgɨ dookaa `hiduu! ‘Although we don’t have any, there’s plenty available in this village!’ `kaanek `duu! ‘My husband is ugly!’ vt. see something or someone. `nom `kaapaa `cin kumaa `lakaa! ‘I hardly see you at all anymore!’ kaarɨk vt. meet someone; see someone, as an act of meeting. ŋo `bɨəm kaarɨk `hilɨɨ `duu. ‘I want to meet him.’ kaanam look as though (something were something else). ɲii `duubəə `ko `garɨɨ `bə `kaaduu `bə `rɨduu. ‘It looks as though people are really living there.’ 2 vie. `kaanam v:c.arg. be black in colour. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun/adjective “yakaa” ‘black’ `yakaa `kaaŋek `duu. ‘It’s extremely/overly See: `yakaa ‘black’. black.’ 57 kaanam-`tanam -kak kaanam-`tanam observations. n. interactions; `kaaro-`tamo kaanii `kaanə Var: `kaar-`tam. vt. hallucinate. See: kaanam ‘look’; `tanam ‘listen’. n. opium. ‘(They’re) bumping up against one another.’ ɲii ə acin dokaa `hil `duugə rəku `laa, `kaju! ‘Everyone’s actually all there eating! Let’s go!’ dookaa hinam ~ kaakaa hinam vi. be many; have many (inanimate) things in a particular location. `ŋun kaamaa `dakkom, dooluu `hɨgɨ dookaa `hiduu! ‘Although we don’t have any, there’s plenty available in this village!’ n. upper shelf of a “`rapko” fireplace shelving complex. Not present in all such complexes and/or not identified by all speakers, it may indicate the uppermost shelf (also known as the “kaɨk”) or a fourth shelf, in case one is constructed. `kaabee kaamee nɨkkaa hinam nukaa hinam larger woodpecker. lucidus. n. goldenbacked Chrysocolaptes vt. box; boxing, as a competitive sport. vt. wrestling, as a competitive sport. n. lowest fireplace shelf (variant of “`kao”). v. see a mirage; see a shape after looking into a bright light. ace. kaamə-tar `kaayum rəkaa hinam ~ `duukaa hinam vi. be many; have many people or other animate things in a particular location. kai See: `kaayum-`kaaŋam ‘beautiful’. Var: attə (P). adj. big. `Galoo `gə namm ə kai doo. ‘Galo houses are big.’ n. lowest shelf of a “`rapko” fireplace shelving complex, generally consisting only of a diagonally-fixed pair of beams, which may be used to quickly store things like stirring sticks, spoons, etc., and may also be used for smoke-drying meats. n. `kaayum-`kaaŋam `Kaalɨɨ -kaahi adj. dazzling; `kao gorgeous; beautiful in every way. name. nickname or term of address with the sense of dear; lovey. vs:adv. competitively; in competition. Gram: Manner suffix with the basic meaning that plural subjects are engaged in a competition in terms of the action denoted by the verb. On activity verbs, usually has the sense of repetitive or game-like competitive activity. On existential verbs, has a sense closer to ‘aplenty’, ‘crowded’ or ‘many’, as though the subjects were competing for existence or space. `cərkaa `hiduu. kaɨk uppermost shelf of a “`rapko” fireplace shelving complex, on which less-frequently-used items such as baskets and seasonal tools are often stored. vs:adv. clean. Gram: Result suffix with the basic meaning ‘clean’. Indicates that the subject (of an intransitive verb) or object (of a -kak 58 dɨkak `kanə transitive verb) becomes fully clean, bright, or shining as a result of the action denoted by the verb. Also occurs together with the Result suffix -bin, together giving the Result ‘competely clean’, and in a expressive form “-kak...-lak”, with the overall meaning ‘disclose’ or ‘reveal’. ŋo alak `əm hukak kaa. go!’ kanam vt. scrape; dig a hole or ‘I washed my hands clean (there’s no dirt left).’ dooɲ ə uukak `duu. ‘The sun is bright.’ trench by scratching or scraping with claws, as a dog or cat. `ikii `ə kodee `əm `kaduu. ‘The dog is digging (by scratching) in the soil.’ `kalen ‘scrape something off (of one’s skin, e.g.)’. `kanam dɨkak `kakam vt. peel something off, as the skin of a charred vegetable. Syn: ikam.n:kin. grandmother. Usage: (P). See: ɲikam ‘grandmother (P)’. vs:advsr. reveal; lay bare; disclose. Gram: Split result suffix vt. send; especially, send someone to do something; send a person on an errand; order someone to do something. `bɨm dukan `bolo `kanam `tokaa. ‘Send him down to the store.’ Var: `kənoo (P). adj. hungry. `kanoo `rəm `mento, `dəi. ‘If you’re hungry, just say so.’ adj. in dire straits; hungry and thirsty and without means of sustenance. See: `kanoo ‘hungry’; `tɨɨlɨɨ ‘thirsty’. Var: `kənə (P). n. darkness. `kanoo -kak...-lak indicating that something is revealed or laid bare as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `kanoo-`tɨɨlɨɨ `meŋkak `menlak vt. disclose; reveal, e.g. someone’s character to another person. See: -kak ‘clean result’. vt. wash a surface. kanə kagnam `kagrɨɨ `Kaŋkuu `kaji n. adj. dark. kan naben `jaaduu, `kaapaa maa. ‘It’s too bloody dark, I can’t see a thing.’ n. storeroom. name. name of a Galo kanə-`jee village in West Siang District. sneeze. `kaji ‘Nothing but sneezes!’ vi. sneeze. Var: `kənə-`jee (P). n. dark green; deep aqua, as a distant forest. See: `jee ‘green/blue’. n:time. `təttə! kanə-popɨr-momɨr kanə-pɨpə-mamə dusk. See: popɨr-momɨr ‘dusk’. Var: `kənə-pɨpə-mamə (P). adj. dim, of a time of day when there is little light (whether morning or evening). Literally, the time when it is so dark you have to feel around for the chicken’s egg (because you can’t see it). See: pɨpə ‘egg’; manam ‘search for’. `bɨɨ `kaji to. ‘He sneezed. `kajuu int. come on; let’s go; okay. Usage: Interjection either exhorting a hearer to join the speaker in some activity, or signalling agreement with another speaker’s suggestion to perform some activity as a group. `kajuu, `dolaa `ju! ‘Come on; let’s eat!’ `kajuu ku! ‘Let’s finally `kanə n:num. seven. acam `kanə 59 -kap kamgo ‘seventy’. brothers.’ 2 • sing a kaben, a traditional -kap sealed; fully closed; completely or forcefully closed, such that unusual effort would be required to open. Gram: Result vs:adv. suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something being fully or completely closed, as a window or door ekkap Galo lineage song. kaben-kabnam ‘to sing a kaben’. See: kaben ‘lineage song’. kabnam `tokee. ‘Lock it (using a key).’ -`kap vs:adv. stick to (result). Gram: Result suffix indicating that something sticks to or is pasted onto the object as a result of the action denoted by the verb `iss `ə `ŋom 2 vt. shingle, particularly in the sense of organizing/arranging or repairing/replacing fan palm leaves on the roof of a house. ŋo taək ə `mɨɨloo `əm `kabduu. ‘I’m shingling the roof with fan palm leaves.’ `kabnam -kam `piikap kaa. ‘The water sprayed on me.’ winnow, as rice paddy. ŋo `ambin `əm `kabduu. ‘I’m winnowing the rice.’ vt. vs:adv. force; persevere. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in a forceful; forcible or persevering manner, overcoming obstacles in the process. ŋo Tamo kaben n. variety of song usually sung by a woman at the time of mithun sacrifice, as at a marriage ceremony, in which the “`nəgɨɨ” lineage of the conjoined families is recounted and many good things are said in favour of the marriage. `kabjen n. horizontal roofing beam, running from end to end of a Galo house in a parallel series from the crest of the roof to the sides. Forms the horizontal aspect of a roofing frame, to which fam palm leaves are attached to form the roof of a Galo house. See: kaajam ‘horizontal roofing beam’. nce. See: `ɨtɨɨ-`kabduu `ne dokam `moto. ‘I forced Tamo to eat (i.e. I forcefully brought about Tamo’s eating despite an obstacle, namely that he didn’t want to).’ ŋo inkam to. ‘I forcefully went (despite someone who was trying to hold me back).’ meŋkam `kabduu ‘palate’. kabnam 1 vi. 1 • cry; weep. no `ŋom dəmr `əm, ŋo kabrə. ‘If you hit me, I’ll cry.’ 2 • sing, of a bird. vt. 1 • cry to someone; weep to vt. browbeat someone; pressure someone into doing something; by words, try to convince or force someone to do something against their will. `buin `əm baabin `lamaa; yəmaa `əm `meŋkam `lamaa. ‘Mouse hair can’t be totally burned off; poor people can’t be forced (to produce what they don’t have).’ rɨkam kamgo someone. aci `aɲɲ `əm `bɨɨ kapto ku. ‘She wept to her two vt. persevere in some struggle; keep going despite difficulties or setbacks. nce. 60 kamgo-riiloo kalam kamgo-riiloo old hag; woman who has reached the maximum possible age. kamgo-riiloo `əm `yəə `rem `laadee `na? ‘Who would take such an old hag as a wife?’ name. name of a village vi. be mature and firm, n. wizened platform made in a tree for the purpose of ambush-hunting an animal. Karkoo `Kamdak kamnam 1 name. Karkoo, son of Cikar and father of Koorɨɨ, traditionally understood as eight generations from Abo Tani. n. moonlight. in central West Siang district. as of a crunchy fruit such as an apple or a grain; be well-fermented, as of bamboo pickles. `bəlaa `ə `kamduu ku. ‘The jackfruit is ripe.’ `karcaa `kartə karnam n. large wedding celebration. kamnam v:c.arg. become an old 2 woman. Gram: Generally occurs vi. emerge, of the moon 1 (as the new moon of the month, or from behind the mountains in the evening), or of the night sky. `poolo `karduu ku. ‘The moon is emerging.’ with associated noun “ɲikam” ‘old woman’ ɲikam-kamnam ‘to karnam become an old woman’. See: ɲikam ‘old woman’. pile large and voluminous things, like stones. ŋo `ɨlɨɨ `əm karrə. ‘I’ll pile the stones.’ 2 vt. kampuu n. bunch of “oko” leaves `karnam vt. 1 • peel, as a fruit. used to strike a sacrificial mithun, as by a bride during a marriage ceremony. Syn: kopuu. 2 • of a button, to be open or kampɨk kambəə n. variety of “oko” plant. Zingiberales sp. ?. See: oko ‘plant variety’. adv. still; (not) yet. `bɨɨ closed, i.e. done up or left open, according to the (obligatory) result suffix occurring on the predicate. `teemaa `ə `karkok `laa `dagduu. ‘The buttons are unbuttoned.’ 1 • button; `nok `ajen `ə kambəə `ree? ‘Is he still your friend?’ `iji `gobə puuluu kambəə `duu. ‘It’s still white to this day.’ acin `əm `momaa kambəə `laree? ‘Why haven’t you made the food yet?’ do up or undo buttons, as on a shirt. `teemaa `əm `karcup hit `kee. ‘Do up your buttons.’ name. 1 • Karbak, son of Karbak kamro n. field fallowing for a period of 10-20 years. adj. Cikar in the Galo lineage. Ninth in generation from Abo Tani. 2 • Karbak `kayaa `kayɨɨ `karə black. See: `yakaa adj. n. ‘black’. Var: attɨɨ (P). Var: hɨsə (P). clan, the modern descendants of Karbak in the Galo lineage. n. ordinary or small-sized wedding ceremony. n. 1 • side of an object with huge; `karmɨk kalam gigantic; enormous. temporary sides, as the front and rear sides 61 `kalup `kiirup of a wall. Usage: used to indicate a surface which is part of an object, rather than a region of space construed as relative to an object (i.e., does not translate English ‘this *side* of the river’). in an argument or dispute; alignment with one of two disputing parties. `bɨɨk kalam `bə ŋo `menrə. ‘I’ll speak/testify on his side/in his favour.’ Syn: cəlam. See: `peeləə ‘side’. 2 • side it expertly.’ `mokii məəkii kii vt. clever or good at making things. vt. clever at figuring things out; sharp at remembering things. Var: kɨi (P). n:kin. younger maternal uncle. Usage: used to refer to or address one’s mother’s youngest brother, as well as any of one’s mother’s brothers’ sons. n. slender waist. n. `kalup `kalor `kahi overturn something, covering something else, as in a shell game. vt. n. debt-clearing, as when Var: `kasi (P). vi. hide oneself; `kiicik `kiicuu kiijɨɨ `kiitɨr Var: `kiisuu (P). puppy dog. n. small intestine. pup; arranging marriages. conceal oneself; do something stealthily. ŋo `kahi `duu. ‘I’m hiding.’ `kahi `tokee. ‘Hide yourself.’ (or) ‘Hide it.’ `kahi `laa `əpak `tok. ‘Throw it away stealthily.’ hide something; conceal something; secret something away. birii `əm `kahi `tokee! ‘Hide the cigarettes!’ vt. n. pack of dogs. `ikii-`kiitɨr ‘pack of dogs’. kiinam v:c.arg. disembowel an animal. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “akii” ‘guts’ akii-kiinam ‘to disembowel something’. See: akii ‘guts’. `kiinə kiinə n. female dog; bitch. n. navel; belly button. kiinə-abuu `kiipin `kiipok -kii n. umbilical cord. See: kiinə ‘navel’; abuu ‘river’. n. dog skin. n. vs:adv. 1 • sharp. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is sharpened as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. sharpen (e.g. bamboo) pakii by striking diagonally with a blade. protruding navel; umbilical cord which has been cut but has not receded into the belly, and leads to a protrusion. n. `kiibo male dog. See: `kiinə nakkii vt. sharpen by whittling. ‘bitch’. 2 • expertly; with expertise. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in an expert or excellent way. `kiimen `kiirup n. hunting dog. `rɨkii vt. do something expertly. Tamo `rɨkii `ə. ‘Tamo is doing Var: `kiiruk (P). n. hunting party, including dogs. `kiirup go `bolaa `ju. ‘Let’s form a hunting party.’ 62 `kiiro -ku vi. form a hunting party with dogs. occurs in the semi-reduplicated form `məəkin `laa “-`kin...-`min”. `kiiro `kiirəə n. large intestine. n. bad, evil or nasty dog. Also used as an insult when directed at humans. `duuduu. ‘(He’s) sitting there unable to decide what to do.’ See: `akin-`amin ‘confused; muddled’. kinnam (2) `kiilee living dog. Generally so-called only when the dog’s life is shortly to be taken, as in a “`yɨɨdum” animal sacrifice. n. n. jar; especially, a large jar made from clay which is used for storing rice while fermenting. Commonly used to describe the metal water vessels made in Assam. vs:advsr. kiilɨɨ vt. deliver a blow; punch or pound in a non-direct or non-traditional manner, usually with the base of a clenched fist, or when delivering an elbow blow. ŋo `bɨəm `ne `kidduu. ‘I’m punching him with the base of my fist.’ `kinnə -kii...-rii very expertly; n:kin. child’s spouse’s mother. Usage: used to refer to or address the mother of the husband or wife of one’s child. vs:advsr. muddled; mixed up; confused. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject is muddled or becomes muddled or confused as a result of the action indicated by the verb. very skilfully. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb in a highly expert manner. -`kin...-`min `mokii `morii ‘make something expertly/skilfully’. -kik vs:adv. overdo it. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the the subject is overdoing it in terms of the action indicated by the verb, or is doing it ‘like mad’, or ‘too much’. vi. `məəkin-`momin `ɨrkik `gukik overly bright; too vi. confused; puzzled; stymied. ŋo `məəkin `momin `duuku. ‘I’m feeling puzzled; I can’t figure this out.’ See: akin amin ‘mixed up’. bright. vi. burn like mad; blaze like an inferno. vi. sleep like a log; `kimbo Var: boɲɨɨ (P). n:kin. child’s spouse’s father. Usage: used to `yupkik Kidii -`kin sleep deeply, without the possibility of being disturbed. name. name of a river in vs:adv. refer to or address the father of the husband or wife of one’s child. kilii -ku n. nail, as for hammering into a plank. Source: Assamese. vs:asp. finally; in the end; after Baasar area. impeded; confused; muddled. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is confused, muddled, or impeded in his actions in some way. Most often all; anymore; yet; ultimately; now; at last. Gram: Completive suffix-cum-particle usually focusing on the completion of an event or state or reaching of a goal at the termination of an event/state, as well 63 -`kuu kuurəə as, potentially, on the transition between one event/state and another. When marking events/states which are construed as transitory, has a sense of ‘returning’ to a more naturally-enduring state-of-affairs. “-ku” can sometimes occur twice on the same verb; in this case, the first “-ku” has a narrower scope (over the verb) while the second “-ku” has a wider scope (over the sentence). Particle variant can mark a noun or copula. When marking a copula, focuses on the final nature of the predication. When marking a noun, focuses on the expected, anticipated, or final nature of the referent, as though many were possible but that the mentioned referent was settled-on. May also mark a newly-introduced or otherwise focused referent, as though to point out that no other referents are able to compete for the same status. In this function, often occurs together with another, semantically similar particle, as “kuda”. ŋo birii tɨɨku maarə. Manner suffix usually occurring on `bɨɨ transitive activity verbs. `maajib inkuu `duu. ‘He really walks extensively (for long distances or as a prominent habit of his).’ bɨɨ dokuu `duu, acin `əm. ‘He eats tons of food.’ much too much. `kaacak-`cakkuu ‘extremely bitter’. Gram: High-intensifying adjs:rcom. suffix to a repeated adjective root, giving the sense that the property indicated by the adjective is much too much or overdone. `kuucuk Var: `kuusuk (P). 1 • sour. adj. 2 • damp; moist, especially of a human being from sweat. n. sourness, of flavour. `kuucuk `əm ŋo eɲcem maa. ‘I don’t like sourness.’ `kuunam ‘I’m not going to smoke cigarettes anymore.’ ŋo `inlaa kumaa. ‘I can’t go anymore (I used to be able to, but now am prevented)’ *or* ‘I can’t go after all/in the end (I wanted/expected to be able to, but it turns out I can’t).’ ŋo `bulləm acin-oo `əm jikaa ku. ‘I at last gave food to them.’ bədaa `əm `məəpaa kumaa kaaku. ‘They couldn’t remember the way (home).’ `təə `kuna! ‘It’s that one (which had gone missing or was being searched-for)!’ vi. be thin, of a human/animate subject. ŋo `kuud `bəcin, nɨgmii `hiko `lo `pagduu. ‘Although I’m thin, I win at fistfighting.’ vt. 1 • weigh. ŋo `ambin `əm kuurə. ‘I’ll weigh the paddy.’ n. kuunam `kuun `naana the armpit. scale, for weighing things. 2 • swing the arm outward from `kuupee -`kuu vs:adv. bent. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in an object being bent into a U-shape. `əm aɲɲig n. sliced bamboo shoot; fresh, unfermented bamboo shoot cut into slices as when preparing for fermentation for use in cooking. See: `iikuu ‘fermented, sliced bamboo shoot’. n. armpit; underarm; the cavity directly opposite the shoulder. nce. See: lagduu.kuurəə kuurɨɨ `kərkuu `doob `mot `kee. ‘Make it sort of into a U-shape.’ -kuu vs:adv. extensively. Gram: kuurəə 64 kuulə -kum ‘elbow’. kuulə n. variety of loosely-woven `rɨd `ree? ‘Can you fish for crawdads (up at that river)?’ tub-like basket, used for storing household goods such as plates, cups, and the like. `kunam -`kuu...-rə vs:advs. brittle; haphazardly made. Gram: Split result suffix to a verb of creation indicating that the result is brittle or not well-made. `pokuu por `laa yell, as when exclaiming in pain or in martial arts; scream, as in frustration or anger. Usage: Not generally used to describe a clear-voice yell, nor for instances in which a message is conveyed. vi. `poji to, `əi. ‘(He) wove (the baskets) so roughly and carelessly, eh.’ See: -`kuu ‘bent’. -kup vs:adv. upside down; face down. Gram: Result suffix with indicating that the subject of an intransitive verb or object of a transitive verb is turned upside down or facing downwards as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `daakup ‘fall face down’. kukcoo nce. See: kukcoo-`looloo ‘fig tree (variety)’. kukcoo-`looloo n. variety of fig tree with distinctive tan/brown pear-shaped flowers (figs) growing close to the trunk, often in doublets. Enjoyed by humans and barking deer alike. Young leaves may be boiled and eaten as a vegetable. Ficus hispida. n. stool, especially one of a tapkub ‘turn upside-down, as when turning over a leaf’. menkup hinam ‘talk oneself into a puzzle’. -kup...-lek kuŋkee low-to-the-ground, table-like shape. See: keepaa ‘stool’. vs:advs. helter-skelter. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject of an intransitive verb or object of a transitive verb becomes helter skelter or is dispersed all over the place as a result of the action denoted by the verb. daakup kutur-kumur n. variety of edible plant found only in plains bordering areas, growing like a weed. Source: poss. Assamese. kunam method of fishing favoured by Galo women in which a conical “`raajuu” basket trap is placed between the legs with its mouth facing a large rock. The rock is then lifted and any fish or, more often, shellfish which are found hiding under and around the rock are scared into the basket which is then lifted and drained of water. Generally occurs with “tahum” ‘shellfish’. tahum `kuduu `bə vt. daalek ‘overturned; all over the place; helter-skelter’. ardə dakup dalek `na ɲii ‘very fast and clever person’. See: -kup ‘upside down’; -lek ‘rightside up’. kubnam 1 vi. overturn; tip over; fall over, as a tipped glass. `opoo `ə `kubduu ku. ‘The rice liquor has (been) overturned.’ kubnam vt. trick or deceive 2 someone, as to gain an advantage; be deceitful in nature. `yoo ager `lacin, `ɲipak `gadd `ə ɲii `əm maaji `kubduu. ‘The non-hill-tribals really trick people in any kind of context.’ vs:adv. -kum senseless; drunk; 65 tɨɨkum `dakkur stoned. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject is made senseless as a result of the action indicated by the verb, whether drunk from drinking, stoned from smoking, or senseless from having eaten something. adj. drunk, from liquor; stoned, from smoking a drug. `bɨɨ tɨɨkum `duuku. ‘He’s drunk.’ -`kum...-`ɲum vs:advsr. curled. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that that an object is put into a curled up or folded up state as a result of the action indicated by the verb tɨɨkum `rukum `ruɲum ‘fall down limply in folds, as a scarf’. -`kum...-`rum dokum adj. numb in the mouth, as from eating lime; stoned or dizzy from eating something, as strong betelnut. vs:advsr. gather haphazardly. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in things being gathered together in a `pukum haphazard manner ‘tug `purum haphazardly’. and gather -`kum vs:adv. gathered together. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object of a transitive verb is gathered together into a pile or set as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Also occurs in the semi-reduplicated form “-`kum...-`rum”, which indicates a more haphazard sense of gathering. -`kur vs:adv. 1 • return; back. Gram: Result suffix usually occurring on motion verbs, indicating that the subject returns or goes back to a place of origin as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Derives a word which can also be used as a noun. `dakur `tok! ‘Put your foot `tɨkum collect things and bring them together in a particular place. vt. vt. back where it belongs (and take it out of the fireplace)!’ `bəəkur `keŋku maa. ‘It’s not possible to take it back anymore.’ `mokum `kumnam `kumnam aggregate; make something bit by bit to form a quantity. 1 `aakur `iŋkur vt. return, to where one is based. `aakur rəku. ‘I’ll return (later).’ vt. pray; observe a religion. 2 vt. go back, to where one has come from. vt. stack long things, such as sticks. ŋo `ɨhɨɨ `əm `kumci `duu. ‘I’ll stack away the wood (for storage/safekeeping).’ 2 • back to back. Gram: Manner suffix to a positional verb indicating that a plural subject is positioned back to back. `dakkur -`kum...-cəə vs:advs. stored away. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that an object is stored, stored away or put into storage as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. stand back to back, as when measuring relative height. 3 • again; for a second time; as a `akkum akcəə ‘hang up and store everything’. See: -`kum ‘gathered together result’. second round; go back to doing something one had been doing before. Gram: Manner suffix to an activity verb indicating that the action indicated by the verb is 66 tɨɨkur `menkek `duuku, amee-ayee `əmcin `makur `duuku. ‘They’re back to looking for beads again, and back to looking for brass platters again (having stopped doing that for a period of time).’ happening for a second time, or as a second round, or that the subject is going back to doing something he had been doing earlier, but then stopped. `tadok `əmcin `makur objects. `keeɲuu n. corner of a space, as a room; joining point of two surfaces, as the two walls of a room. keepaa `keebek n. stool, especially one of a low-to-the-ground, table-like shape. See: kuŋkee ‘stool’. adj. starchy; pasty; chalky, tɨɨkur `kurii kusuri ke vt. drink a second round, as an unripe fruit. having n. cat. finished the first. -`kee...-`ee See: -taa ‘more’. indiscriminately. n. medicine. pcl. please (request form). Gram: more polite, request-like form of “`kee” no `hɨgɨm aɲɲii go vs:advsr. here and there; Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed here and there, repeatedly and with no singularly-directed focus vt. scan; inspect; look in every direction/area, as though inspecting something new and unfamiliar. `kaakee `kaee `menɲj toke. ‘Could you please go tell him this?’ `kee pcl. please (do x). Gram: Polite hortative particle usually found following imperative clauses, giving a sense a of a polite, respectful, but still firm request (perhaps closer to ‘please do this’ than ‘could you please do this’ in English). May also occur following certain types of noun - generally, indefinite nouns in “da” contributing to an implication that the speaker is requesting some/one of the named thing. `ŋom `is go `menkee `menee vt. blab; blabber; speak indiscriminately, as though with the intention of provoking a quarrel. `yupkee `yubee -kek go on sleeping, here and there, not trying to get up. vi. `jilaa `kee. ‘Could you please give me some water?’ acin `dolaa `jukee. ‘Let’s eat, shall we?’ `əkkəm `meɲyoo `kem. ‘Don’t say that sort of thing.’ `meɲji `tokee. ‘Tell him.’ `acco `bə `kee! ‘Please be quiet!’ aɲɲii go `dakee. ‘Please (give me) a little more.’ `keeji n. three-angled weaving pattern employed in the formation of bamboo basketry, as for the construction of ritual vs:adv. indiscriminately. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts indiscriminately, without caution, and possibly provocatively in the action indicated by the verb. Also occurs in a semi-reduplicated form “-kek...-ek”, with the overall meaning ‘copiously’, ‘to a great extent’, ‘indiscriminately’ or ‘all over the place’. nɨkkek nɨgek ‘stab furiously here and there’. `menkek speak vt. provoke someone; in a provocative 67 keŋkur kennam (2) manner, as if to start a fight. `gəken keŋkur n:time. five years ago. n:time. five days ago. feel good. aɨɨ ə `gəken `duu. ‘I’m feeling fit.’ adj. keŋkur-aloo ‘day’. `tɨɨken See: keŋkur ‘five years ago’; aloo adj. delicious (to drink or smoke). are, `tɨɨken `ə! ‘Wah, these (cigarettes) are great!’ `keŋkəɲɨɨ `keŋkəyo `keŋkəloo `keŋŋaa nine. n:time. three years ago. n:time. three nights ago. n:time. three days ago. n:num. `doken adj. delicious (to eat). `yaluk `lɨgmaa `rəm `doken `kumaa. ‘If you don’t put in chillies, it’s no longer tasty.’ adj. easy to say. `menken maa. ‘I can’t say (I’m not sure).’ Iŋglis agom ə `meŋken maa. ‘English is not easy to speak.’ adj. easy to do. Var: `konaa (P). `meŋken keɲjur n:time. six years ago. keɲjur-aloo ‘day’. n:time. six days ago. See: keɲjur ‘six years ago’; aloo n:time. two years ago; the n:time. two nights ago. `rɨken `rəken `keɲɲɨɨ `keɲyo -ken 1 other year. adj. nice to live in, of a place. Delli `bolo `rəken `əi maa! ‘Delhi is terrible to live in!’ Ant: -`nek. vs:adv. must; have to. Gram: Obligatative suffix usually following Definite suffix “-ruu”; indicates that the addressee is obliged to perform the action indicated by the verb. Rare, possibly archaic. “Aɲi Mumsi, no -`ken numr. one. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier expressions hob dorken go ‘one mithun’. See: `aken ‘one’. n. variety of earring worn by women. n:time. four years ago. n:time. four days ago. inruu `kenduu ku.” “Elder Sister Mumsi, you must go (with him).” `kentuu -ken vs:adv. spitefully; in spite; as though to spite. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject performs the action indicated by the verb in order to spite someone else. 2 `kendaɲɨɨ `kendaloo `kennam (2) doken ‘eat right in front of someone, as to spite them’. vt. 1 • rub with a tool (not the bare hand); scrub. `kett `kee! ‘Rub it (the dirt off your body)!’ 2 • grind, using a tool. ŋo `ambin -`ken vs:adv. good; easy; nice. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is good in terms of the action indicated by the verb, or else is easy to do in this way. `əm `kerrə. ‘I’ll grind the paddy.’ `kemmɨk vt. grind something into bits or powder. `kaaken beautiful; pretty. `Galoo `ɲijɨr `ə `majjaa `kaaken `duu! ‘Galo girls are so pretty!’ adj. kennam (2) vi. flee; run away; avoid someone; escape. `tanamə `bɨɨk ɲimm ə kekkaa ku! ‘I heard that his wife fled (leaving 68 `kenloo -`ko him)!’ `kenloo n:time. yesterday; today. day two days before before -`ken...-`paa vs:advs. easily done. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that some action is easy or straightforward to perform Usage: Usually found in the (elder women).’ `yool `iŋko? ‘Where have you been?’ `bɨɨ `Iigoo abuu `əm `kaapaa `ko dooluu lo `duuduu. ‘He stays in the village from which the “Iigo” River can be seen.’ 2 • Dative nominalizer. Gram: Extended sense of the Locative nominalizer, deriving a nominal from a ditransitive verb which is understood as the Indirect object of the verb. `bɨɨ `yəəm `laa `jikko? negative in “-maa”, indicating difficulty or inability to do easily or well. `meŋken `mempaa maa. ‘(It’s) not easy to say.’ See: -`ken ‘easy manner’; -`paa ‘get/attain result’. ‘Whom did he give it to?’ 3 • Method nominalizer. Gram: sense of the Locative nominalizer deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘way of doing/being able to do x’ ŋo “maa” `əmdee `ko `əi `kebbuk n. variety of foot disease; treated by wrapping the foot in a bandage and pricking the affected area with a needle, whereupon black blood is said to emerge. Var: ɲidoo-kessoo-kelloo. n. variety of lizard. See: ɲidoo-kessoo-kelloo ‘variety of lizard’. kaamaa! ‘I’ve got no way to say no!’ 4 • Process nominalizer. Gram: sense of the Locative nominalizer deriving a nominal with the basic meaning ‘process of x’ or ‘situation of x’. Usually occurs with following Locative marker “lo”, giving the literal meaning ‘on someone’s doing’, with the implication ‘together with someone’. tiihir `tak `lo, loum go kessoo-kelloo -`ko adj:mono. old (of a non-living Gram: Adjective root combining with classifiers and other noun roots nam `namko `na 1 thing). `namɲi go ‘two old houses’. lagi rə. ‘To get it to start sweetening, you need three days?’ no `yəək `iŋko `lola `int `duuko? ‘With whom are you going?’ 5 • Reason nominalizer. Gram: sense of the Locative nominalizer deriving a nominal with the basic meaning ‘because of x’ or ‘due to x’. Unlike other senses, exhibits a Nominative (plain) rather than Genitive (possessor) subject. `bɨɨ -`ko vs:nzr. 1 • Locative nominalizer to an adjective or verb. Gram: Derives a noun with the basic meaning ‘place where x (occurs/occurred)’. Var: -k. 1 `hodum `gə `iŋkom ŋo kaato. ‘I saw (the place) where the barking deer went.’ `hot `gə `is `tɨɨko `lo `ŋun `aalɨk kaa. ‘We arrived at the place where the elephants usually go to drink.’ `buluk `kaako `lo ŋo tɨɨmaa rə. ‘I won’t smoke in front of them `takaa `kolo, ŋo əmt ba `əmbə. ‘Because he asked me, (that’s why) I told it like this.’ `bɨɨ pato `kaa `əmko `lo, ŋo `paduu `na. ‘Because he told me to cut (the wood), (that’s why) I cut it.’ `əgə `kookek `gə `akek gəmaa ko. 69 -`ko `kookek ‘That’s why the “`kookek” bird doesn’t have kidneys.’ 6 • Oblique nominalizer. Gram: sense of the Locative nominalizer deriving a nominal which focuses on a non-core participant of an event, such as a time of reason. Often extended to cover all arguments including core arguments - in declarative and interrogative cleft/focus constructions, although not all speakers accept such formations as correct grammar. `koak `koik -`koo n. binding strap at the mouth of a sheath, forming a sort of lip. vt. praise someone who has done well. Syn: `iik. `kojjuu `na `ag `ko! ‘Just now is the time when it was hot (not anymore)!’ `mərum `ne `hukko. ‘Don’t you see, yesterday is when I bathed.’ `hog `ree `mor `ko maa `bol `ree `mor `ko? ‘Will you do it here or down there?’ `yool `laa `duuduu `ko? ‘Where are you staying?’ protrude; surpass. 2 vs:adv. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject protrudes out of a space or surpasses another object as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Can describe physical protrusion from the ground, as a plant or a nail, as well as relative position in motion, as when one person passes another when walking. Also occurs in a semi-reduplicated form “-`koo...-`loo”. a stick, be sticking halfway out of the ground (and halfway buried); of a plant, emerge. `hɨɨn `əm `buppɨɨ `əm `caakoo `yaaduu. ‘The tree is taller than all the others (possibly because it has at one point come out of the ground).’ Syn: `torkoo. 2 • go past, when ascending. vi. 1 • of `caakoo -`ko vs:val. let (someone do 2 something to x); allow (someone to do something to x). Gram: Reversive suffix, causing the object of a transitive verb to be understood as the actor and the subject to be understood as the one ‘to whom’ something is done. Similar, though not identical, to an English passive. May be reduplicated; in this case, the actor is understood as having relatively more control over the mentioned action. `beej `piik `bɨɨ `ŋunnəm `caakoo `yaaduu. ‘He’s gone ahead of us (ascending a mountain).’ -`koo `tokee. ‘Be injected (you have no choice)!’ `beej `piik `kot `kee. ‘Go get an injection (of your own volition).’ no `mɨəm `ɨhɨɨ `hɨgɨm paji `kot `kee. ‘Let him cut this wood for you.’ `gutee `komaa `bə `dei! ‘Don’t get yourself burnt!’ `ac-`accob ɲii `kaapaa `komaab `uluu `lo aaee `kaa. ‘Go carefully to the boat without letting anyone see you.’ no `moji `kot `kee! ‘Let someone/get someone to make it for you!’ vs:adv. make a hole through something. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a hole or opening is made in the object as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Also occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-`koo...-`loo”. `dokoo ‘make a 3 hole in something by eating’. -koo vs:adv. roughly; imprecisely. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in a rough or imprecise way, or affects a target other than the intended one. Also occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-koo...-loo”. n. variety of bird, about `kookek 70 `kookɨɨ `koonam nightingale-sized, with a yellow chest and brown body. `kookɨɨ n:rel. 1 • back; behind; back side of an object. Usage: Not used to refer to the anatomical back of a human body. 2 • end; endpoint of a duration of small sections may be easily broken without being completely snapped off. kootɨr tɨrnam ‘to count or mark off quantities by breaking sticks’. `kootə nce. See: naanii-`kootə n. ‘buttocks’. time or endpoint of an event. See: uugɨɨ ‘back (of a body)’. `koodaa Var: `nuugaa (P). n. balcony. `kookɨɨ `bə adv. after; afterward; time following the completion of an event. `ok `kookɨɨ `bə, `hodum `ə kegee kaa. ‘After that, the barking deer fled away.’ n. base of the head. name. Koogee, second son `koodaa-`imik balcony fireplace; fireplace traditionally located on the balcony of some Galo houses. See: `koodaa ‘balcony’; `imik ‘hearth’. 1 • operate a lever; 1 vt. manipulate a lever, as to close or open a door which is held fast by a system of levers or a beam. `koogak `Koogee `koocik koonam of Karkoo. Var: `koosik. nce. small hawk (any variety). Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: dookoo-`koocik ‘sparrow hawk’. Var: koosəə (P). n. chipmunk; ground squirrel (with lines on back). n. twig; small stick. 1 2 • wedge koocəə something e.g. by sticking in a blade; dig by scooping with a lever. ŋo `ɨlɨɨ `əm `kooduu. ‘I’m wedging out the stone.’ hipp `əm `kooduu. ‘I’m rowing the raft.’ ŋo `hibuu `əm koorap rə. ‘I’m rowing across the river.’ 3 • row a boat with a pole. ŋo `koocək `Koojum `koojum kooɲɨɨ `kootak name. Koojum, son of n:poet. fire. Usage: Goŋku. See: ɨhɨɨ-kooɲɨɨ kootum koonam 2 Karkoo. 2 vt. lock a door placing a beam across it. Var: `tunam (P). by vt. nce. 1 • knit clothing. Properly refers ‘mongoose’. n. woven stripe, usually of about two inches breadth, running down the back of a “`galəə” skirt. Var: `ɲotuu (P). adj. to the motion/activity of knitting, as opposed to the entire procedure from beginning to end. ŋo lalɨk go `kooduu. ‘I’m knitting a sweater.’ 2 • wear or cover oneself with `kootuu kootɨr tailless, i.e. without a tail. n. counting stick; traditional tool made from a length of ordinary dry wood, from which something as clothing or a clothing-like accessory. `raacəə koonam ‘to wear/outfit oneself with a backpack’. `koonam vi. cross something a 71 `koonam `koolɨɨ boundary or something lying in one’s path on foot; especially, cross a river by walking/treading across. See: `boonam ‘cross over (mountain)’; rabnam ‘cross (by conveyance)’. with a loop in the narrow top and designs on the face. koobuu-`curgen Var: koobɨɨ-curgen (P). n. traditional ornaments, in general. See: koobuu ‘variety of ornament’; `curgen ‘variety of ornament’. `koonam vi. of the buttocks, to move. `ŋok `əkoo `ə `kooduu. ‘My butt is moving.’ vt. move or manoeuvre the buttocks, as when a human dances or a bee shifts its rear to sting. See: `əkoo ‘hips; butt’. ace. very close. Usage: usu. `koorin `kooree Koorɨɨ 1 nce. nce. See: tabin-`koorin See: `jeci-`kooree ‘variety of termite’. ‘festival clothing’. name. first son of Karkoo. koonii koopuu occurs in compound. See: `nəci-koonii ‘right up close’. nce. See: koopuu-laggoo ‘variety of ornament’. `koorɨɨ vt. compare. `koorɨɨ hibam `tokee. ‘Compare them all together.’ n. adjective. Type of word (part-of-speech) denoting properties, characteristics or attributes of people or things. Gram: In Galo, `koorɨɨnam-`gomcɨr koopuu-laggoo Var: koopuu-lagbuu (P). n. armlet; variety of ornament, consisting of a silver band worn around the forearm. See: laggoo ‘bracelet’. `koopər n. raised plate, such as is commonly found as a ceremonial dish for offering betel in the Assam plains, and which has ritual value in some Galo ceremonies. `koob n. mug. Source: English. n. `koobaa ladder; stairs; especially, the ladder/stairs leading up to the entrance of a house. adj. have plumber’s butt; `koobik the overwhelming majority of adjectives are lexicalized disyllables, however a small number of monosyllabic adjectival roots with the meanings ‘big’, ‘small’, ‘old’ and ‘new’ are capable of productively forming adjectives by compounding with classifiers or certain types of nominal root. Most basic adjectives have the structure “a-ROOT”, although most adjectives overall have the structure “ROOT-ROOT”. A certain number of adjectives are four-syllable compounds, often including in the fourth syllable a semi-reduplication of the second syllable. See: `koorɨɨ ‘compare’; be exhibiting one’s buttock cleavage, as when wearing loose or low-riding pants. `gomcɨr ‘word’. koorə 2 nce. See: `imbə-koorə ‘termite (variety)’. koobuu Var: koobɨɨ (P). n. variety `koolɨɨ of ornament, probably lead, bell-like, in an apple-sized cone, nce. red posterior; red buttocks. Usage: usu. found in compound. See: `beo-`koolɨɨ 72 koohap kocəə ‘variety of monkey’. koohap Var: koosap (P). n. tongs made from cane, used for all-purpose work around the fireplace. the subject is transferred to a splitwise or straddling posture as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `tukok ‘kick and get stuck -koo...-loo vs:advsr. quite roughly. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb roughly or in an imprecise or unsystematic manner tukoo tuloo morə. ‘I’ll in a straddle (e.g. of a tree fork)’. ŋo sokii lo `təkok rə. ‘I’ll sit straddling the chair.’ kokam n. variety of “oko” plant. Zingiberales sp. ?. See: oko. int. cock-a-doodle-doo; sound of cock’s crowing. vt. roll up or tie a leaf, object or packet into a pretzel shape, as for ease of carrying. n. peak, as of a cresting adj. kokorəko! kokər kick roughly; imprecisely.’ namkoo namloo `duu. ‘The house is roughly/unsystematically made.’ See: -koo ‘roughly’. `kogdɨr wave. -`koo...-`loo vs:advsr. make a hole (result). Gram: Split result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in a hole being made in something See: -`koo ‘hole `kogdɨr-`kogbar result’. non-uniform, of a landscape; undulating with rapid peaks and troughs. See: `kogdɨr ‘peak’; `kogbar ‘trough’. -kok vs:adv. 1 • open (result). Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is opened as a result of the action indicated by the verb, or that obstacles or difficulties are removed tukok ‘kick something kognam kognam `kogbar 1 vi. crow; make the sound of a rooster. porok ə `kogduu. ‘The chicken is crowing.’ open (as e.g. a door)’. `mɨɨ puktum `əm pukkok kaa. ‘He popped open the lid.’ 2 • initiate. Gram: Verb suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is initiated perform chick 2 vt. divination. See: `roo-kognam. n. trough, as of the trough of a wave or an eroded basin of land. `koŋaa-`koraa adj:expr. speechless; ɲɨrkok `rɨkok vi. start to laugh. vt. initiate an activity. unable to speak due to fear or extreme happiness. See: konam ‘move the mouth’; -`ŋaa ...-`raa ‘no result’. `rɨkok-`meŋkok vt. take the initiative; overcome obstacles. `abaa `naruu `əm `rɨkok-`meŋkok `laaduu. ‘(You) can overcome all of these things.’ `koŋak `koŋee kocəə vi. stutter. Syn: `goŋkak. Var: luŋee (P). n. banana heart; the edible heart of a banana tree. Var: kosəə (P). n. channel or ditch of relatively small size, through which water is running -`kok vs:adv. split-wise; straddling. Gram: Result suffix indicating that 73 kocəə-korəə kopuu or has run; stream. kocəə-korəə Var: kosəə-korəə (P). n. brook; small trickling section of a stream. See: kocəə ‘channel’; “koluu” banana leaves, used as a water-impermeable surface to divert the flow of water through a small channel in the dam. korəə ‘brook’. `kodum kodee `kocək n. piece or fragment of a n. variety of yellow-skinned jungle banana. n. soil; dirt; earth. leaf, especially as may be used as a plug to stop up a container. `kocək `lok `hɨɨtum rə. ‘(I) will stop up (the container) with leaf fragments.’ kodee-deerɨɨ Var: kodee-deeyɨɨ (P). n. plains; flatland. See: kodee ‘earth’; deerɨɨ ‘plains’. `kojup adj. a type of sitting position, leaning against the floor with the legs locked, i.e. closed/together at the ankles as well as at the knees. See: `kotaa ‘sit with legs splayed’. adv. awhile; in awhile. `koj `ne inrə. ‘I’ll go in a minute.’ n:time. See: `kojo `konaa nine. Usage: (P). See: `keŋŋaa ‘nine (L)’. n:num. `konam `kojo `kojo-`allo kojjuu the ‘awhile’; future. `allo vt. dig by scooping or 1 scraping away dirt without much effort, as when scooping some dirt away from a plant using the finger. ŋo kodee `əm `koduu. ‘I’m digging in the soil (by scooping it away).’ vt. request; beg for 2 something. ŋo abo `ne `koduu. ‘I’m begging something of (my) father.’ ‘tomorrow’. n:time. awhile ago; some time back; some time ago. `kojjuu `na `ag `ko! ‘Before was is the time when it was hot (now, however, it has cooled down)!’ adv. long since; long ago; a long `konam konam time ago. `kojjuu iŋkaa. ‘He went a long time ago.’ vi. move, of the mouth; move one’s mouth. kon-kob `tokee! ‘Say something (you fool)!’ vs:adv. dented. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in an object being dented. Also occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-`kop...-`rop”. n. banana. Strictly indicates -`kop `kojjo `kotaa n:time. afternoon; time after midday. adj. a type of sitting position, leaning against the floor with the legs splayed, i.e. closed/together at the ankles but relaxed and open at the knees. See: `kojup ‘sit with legs closed’. n. spoon. n. element of a “`hibok” `kopak `kotuu kodap a variety of edible banana, but is usually used as a default term for bananas in general. Musa acuminata. kopuu n. bunch of “oko” leaves fishing dam, a pack of flat-bound used to strike a sacrificial mithun, as by a bride during a 74 kopen `komam marriage Syn: kampuu. ceremony. kopen n. rice packet; packet of rice burrowing rodent. See: `kobuu ‘rodent’; apik ‘soil discharged by animal’. wrapped in “oko” leaf, used for distributing to large groups and carrying over a distance. kopen `əm `penduu. ‘I’m folding up the rice packet.’ `kobuu-`məəkuu n. variety of plant. Actinostemma tenerum. See: `kobuu ‘rodent’; `məəkuu ‘cucumber’. n. element of a loin loom, a stick used for stretching the cloth horizontally so that it will not collapse. Found immediately above the point where the “`tapin” is to be thrown over, and immediately below the “`taapə” bunching tool. Syn: `itam. `kopɨk kopə n. eroded area. `kopɨk `ə kobdaa mee go `kaaduu. ‘There are many eroded areas (here).’ n. variety of Solanum (eggplant), with bitter fruits about the size of a cherry tomato. Solanum khasianum. -kopə vs:nf. while; during. Gram: Concurrent suffix, indicating that the marked verb represents a process during or at the same time as which something else happens. Generally followed by “-`laa” or “`əm(ə)”. kobnam vt. hack; chop with an axe or dao, using maximum force and leaving large wood chips. ŋo `hɨɨn `əm kobrə. ‘I’ll chop (down) the tree.’ gəkkop `laa, `oloo `laku. ‘When I was in the process of carrying it, it fell.’ `kom `kopər kopər vi. pout, as of an angry, spoilt child. `kopər `yokee! ‘Don’t pout!’ pcl. also. Gram: Conjunctive particle marking a noun as one who participates in an event/state ‘also (in addition to someone/something else)’. Basically identical to “`cin” in this function, although not as commonly used. Source: Minyong n. packet made from “oko” leaf, used for storing and transporting rice. kopər pərnam ‘make a “kopər” packet’. vs:advsr. dented. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something becomes fully or completely dented as a result of the action indicated by the verb. adj. -`kop...-`rop (Adi). `ŋookom inrə. ‘I too will go.’ `rɨdak `kom `rɨmaa `kom. ‘Whether you do it or not.’ `yaddɨɨ `lokom kaamaa `bə `rɨmaa `duu. ‘We are at no point ever without some.’ See: `cin ‘also’. `komam `mookop-`moorop `kobuu sunken; sunken-in, of cheeks. See: -`kop ‘dented result’. n. rodent; mouse; rat. n. rodent dirt-pile; `kobuu-apik the dirt-pile kicked up by a n. valley; area at the base of any set of two or more usually quite steep cliffs, generally with a small stream or groundwater deposit, in which water-loving plants such as bananas and gingers are mostly found, and where cultivation is not generally possible. 75 `Komə koluu `Komə `komgo name. name of a river in `rɨkor-`meŋkor `korum n. manner; n. Likabali circle. n. variety of fishing trap, a “`hipə” dam or river barrier into which gaps are constructed, at the end of each of which is a “`takom” fish trapping container into which fish can enter but cannot escape. Var: `rokkom (P). n:time. way of doing things. Var: `koyum. 1 • ancients; ancestors. 2 • ancient times; the time of the ancestors. `korum `ogo...‘Once upon a time...’ `korum boolo, `nom `cin parə. ‘In the old times, we’d have killed you too!’ komci early morning, around dawn. adj. early in the morning. komci `duuku. ‘It’s dawning.’ koroo ditch or channel of medium size, through which water is running or has run. See: kocəə ‘channel’. n. n. geological depression of any size or variety caused by the eroding effects of water, such as a valley, trough, or ditch. See: koroo ‘ditch’; `komam ‘valley’. n. sandal; shoe (archaic). Properly refers to plank shoes, i.e. a sandal whose sole is a single plank of wood. `komci n. variety of grasshopper, thought to look like a girl, with red colouring around the area where the lips might be. koroo-`komam kom`cii n:time. crack of dawn; extremely early in the morning. komci-tanii morning. morning’. adv. very early in the See: komci ‘early `korom `kompə kombo n. peach. korəə nce. well, from which water is taken. See: kəbaa-kombo ‘well’. n. variety of grasshopper. n. brook; small, section of a stream. trickling `komlee kor- kornam korcaa vi. step, as on stairs. vi. step up (on a stair). clfqr. Classifier for steps/paces, as when measuring the length or breadth of a surface area. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. korum, korpi...‘three paces, four paces...’ See: akor ‘pace’. `koobaa `og `jopcaa `yookee; `korcaa `tokee! ‘Don’t jump up the ladder, step up (properly)!’ korlen korloo kornoo korsik koluu vi. -kor vs:nzr. way of doing house; forever. step out of one’s leave one’s house something. Gram: Nominalizer forming a noun describing a manner of doing something n. way of talking; manner of speech. ŋo `bɨɨk `meŋkor `bə menrə. ‘I will speak in his manner.’ vi. step down (on a stair). `meŋkor nce. See: abo-kornoo ‘Himalayan jungle nightjar’. n. pandanus. Usage: (P). See: `tako ‘pandanus (L)’. n. variety of wild jungle 76 `kohuk kɨgnam banana with many hard seeds. Usually given to pigs. usually found, but didn’t find any!.’ `kohuk `kohɨɨ n. dried-up, browned leaf n. head of a stream or vs:advs. exchange; back `kɨɨcɨk kɨɨnam 1 Var: `kɨɨsɨk (P). adj. salty. of an “oko” plant (any variety). channel. n. saltiness; salinity. vi. lie flat; lie down, as -`ko...-pek and forth; in alternation; reciprocally; in turns. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating, of a plural subject, that the action indicated by the verb is brought about in alternation or in turns. Often has a reciprocal sense. When the subject is singular, indicates that the the action has effects on different objects. `duuko `duupek `laju. ‘Let’s switch seats.’ no `laa Tamar `tɨɨko tɨɨpek `duu. ‘You and Tamar are sharing a cigarette.’ when sick; slouch around, not worrying about propriety or posture, as though one were not in a position to worry about niceties (because ill or otherwise afflicted by something). `bɨɨ `aci `laa nam `tə `kɨɨl `kɨɨl `dooduu. ‘He’s lying sick and motionless up in the house.’ `yooyaa `rɨs kaaku maa `məəla, `kɨɨl `doomum goku `lakaa. ‘Seeming that there’s not much to do, it looks like it’s a case of just lying around uselessly.’ `jiko-jipek vt. exchange gifts; kɨɨnam 2 vt. slice; cut with a sawing, give reciprocally. meŋko mempək vt. switch between ideas (I’ll do this - no, actually, I’ll do that - no, on second thought I’ll do this)’. side-to-side motion using a knife, as when cutting meat. `kɨɨlɨk `tokee. ‘Slice it into (the pot).’ kɨɨyɨr `kɨ vt. cut around in a circle, as when preparing a bamboo container. vt. saw something in two. n. variety vt. count; enumerate. `Tai, `hɨɨtak kɨnam `ruu `gadd `əm `kɨkaa toku. ‘Tai, count up all the measured-out poles.’ n. variety of bird, possibly speckled wood pigeon. Columba hodgsonii. kɨɨrik `kɨkoo dove. of pigeon or kɨar -kɨk...-rɨk vs:advsr. everywhere; fully; with full coverage of an area. Gram: Split result suffix -`kɨɨ vs:adv. extensively. Gram: Manner indicating that the action indicated by the verb happens extensively, either in that it happens for a long time, or in that it affects a large range of objects `meŋkɨɨ indicating that the action indicated by the verb is fully or completely carried out, is carried out everywhere in an area, or with full coverage makɨk marɨk ‘search all kumaa `lacin...‘Even if we don’t go into all the details...’ ohoo `mookom `makɨɨ `laa, ohoo `mapaa maa! ‘We looked all over the place where the cane is over an area’. `mokaa. ‘(They) cleared (the field).’ pakɨk-parɨk completely kɨgnam vt. pound something using an instrument. ŋo ŋoii baanam `əm kɨgji rə. ‘I’ll smash 77 kɨgmɨk -kə up the baked fish for you.’ kɨrtə nce. See: kɨrtə-pumpaa n. variety of rat, kɨgmɨk `kɨji `kɨtə vt. pulverize something ‘rodent (variety)’. by pounding it with a tool. n. variety of pigeon or dove. kɨrtə-pumpaa `kɨlum Chalcophaps sp. n:kin. 1 • eldest maternal uncle. Usage: used to refer to or address foul-smelling, jungle-dwelling. usually the eldest mother. brother of one’s 2 • uncle-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address the father of one’s wife. n. maroonbacked imperial pigeon. Very large variety of dove resident in tall trees, with a leisurely flight pattern. Ducula badia. vs:adv. dead. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something being killed (subject of intransitive verbs or object of transitive verbs) -`kə 3 • paternal aunt’s husband. Usage: used to refer to or address the husband of one’s father’s sister. `pəək `tokee! ‘Kill (the snake)!’ kɨdəə n:kin. third maternal uncle. Usage: used to refer to or address -kə the third brother of one’s mother. Rare, possibly archaic in usage. numr. six. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier expressions ŋoii `nəkkə go ‘six fish’. See: akkə ‘six’. pcl. Informative particle. Gram: Signals that the mentioned sentence is being uttered for the purpose of informing the hearer of a fact he or she does not yet know. Very often follows ‘hearsay’ particle “yu”, basically adding the sense ‘thus (it is said)’. `doken doo `yukə. ‘I heard kɨnam campaign, as for an 1 vt. election; canvass an area as part of a campaign. ŋo dɨp `əm kɨrə. ‘I’m going to canvass Dipa (in the election campaign).’ `kə kɨnam 2 vt. measure; measure out, e.g. units of length or quantities. `amo `kɨduu `əm, `allɨ `bə `kɨt `kem! ‘When measuring paddy, do it properly!’ ŋo `ɨhɨɨ `əm kɨkaa rə. ‘I’ll measure the (length of the) wood.’ from someone that it’s tasty.’ `tə `ben `kə. ‘It seems to be that one up there.’ -`kə kɨristan kɨroo n. Christian. Source: Var: `-k(k) (occurs in non-phrase-final positions). pros. ‘s. Gram: Genitive case marker, occurring as a suffix to pronouns and demonstratives `ŋok abo ‘my English. n:kin. second maternal uncle. Usage: used to refer to or address the second brother of one’s mother. Rare, possibly archaic in usage. father’. `nok amin `əm `meɲji `lakaa! ‘Tell me your name!’ See: `gə ‘Genitive case postposition’. `kɨrci n. emerald dove. Chalcophaps -kə indica. vs:adv. abortively. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts as though about to do something 78 `kəə kəbaa-kombo (but does not), or starts to do something (but does not follow through). tukə ‘act as though one would kick’. See: -to...-kə ‘for the `kəkoo `kəjin variety ground-dwelling squirrel. n. of first time’. vi. stretch, as in relaxation. Syn: `kəjin-`kətaa. vi. stretch, as in relaxation. See: `kəjin ‘stretch’. vce. See: `kəjin-`kətaa `kəə int. okay; bye. 1 Usage: Interjection usually either `kəjin-`kətaa `kətaa `kətəə signalling agreement or lack of objection with a proposal, like English ‘okay’. Often used when saying good-bye, where it can have a sense closer to ‘see you (later)’. A: `caar ku. B: `kəə. A: ‘We’re going home.’ B: ‘Okay, see you.’ `kəə, `əi? ‘See you later, eh?’ `kəə, `ment `kee. ‘Okay, go ahead (and continue the story).’ ‘stretch’. n. supporting beam; in house construction, a beam supporting a “gɨɨtuu” pillar, which (unlike the pillar) does not reach all the way to the roof. n. tailbone. vi. 1 • twist; roll over, as kədər `kəə pcl. come on! do it, got it? Y’hear? Gram: Admonitive particle used in an imperative sentence when a speaker lacks confidence that the command will actually be carried out by the addressee. Increases the hortative force and possibly includes a warning that there will be consequences if the listener should fail to carry out the commanded task. 2 kənam when sleeping. `bɨɨ `kəduu. ‘He’s rolling over (in his sleep).’ ohoo ə `kəduu. ‘The rope is twisted.’ 2 • lie down in some position, probably which would have required twisting to attain. kədɨr kəlek vi. lie on one’s side. vi. lie on one’s back. `occik `əm `jilaa `kəə! ‘Don’t forget to give him the knife!’ adin domaa `bə `kəə! ‘Don’t eat meat, y’hear?’ vt. twist something. ŋo ohoo `əm `kəduu. ‘I’m twisting the rope.’ -kəə vs:adv. tightly. Gram: Verb suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is performed in a tight way, or results in something being tightened or packed-close. ɨkəə kənək `tok! ‘Pound (the earth) tight (around the stake)!’ goŋkəə `tokee! ‘embrace (him) tightly!’ adj. diligent; careful; considerate; respectful and wholehearted. kənək `jaabə `ŋok agom `əm `taduu. ‘He listens to what I saw very carefully and diligently.’ n. 1 • meeting; village council. kəbaa baanam ‘to hold a meeting’. 2 • public; the general public. kəbaa `kəəcuu kəənam n. sternum; joining point of the two halves of a ribcage. vt. cook vegetables, generally by boiling. oo `lok kəət `yoola! ‘Make some food why don’t you!’ kəbaa-kombo n. well, literally, a common or public water source. See: kombo ‘well’. 79 `kəbə `kərnam `kəbə n:qual. 1 • other. Gram: Pre-nominal qualifying noun with a definite or contrastive meaning ‘(the) other (one, not the one already mentioned)’ `kəb `ap-`ahee `gadd group of men are slashing at one of them.’ -kər `ə `doken maa. ‘The other fruits are not delicious.’ 2 • else. Gram: Post-nominal qualifying noun with an indefinite or additive meaning, as ‘(something) else’ or ‘another (one)’ ɲii `kəbə vs:adv. twisted. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is twisted as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `hɨgɨm ŋo `yəkkər kaa. ‘I knotted this.’ kəren n. fishing line; line of a fishing pole. kaamaa. ‘There wasn’t anyone else.’ ŋo lalɨk `kəb go `gəpə lagi `duu. ‘I should wear another (different) shirt.’ kərəm n. main body of a fishing pole; pole of a fishing pole. `kərcɨr n. fishhook; fishing line. 1 hook of a kəbə kəmə n. variety of wool, from which kərnam vi. be twisted, of rope, “`jebo” tunics are traditionally made. pcl. tell me about it! Gram: Sympathetic informative particle to a declarative sentence, usually containing some information which is contrary to what the addressee may have thought or hoped-for. Carries an additional implication that the speaker is in sympathy with the addressee’s inability to either find out some particular information or obtain a particular result. A: ŋo wire, or any other similar thing; be or become fouled-up or tangled of itself. ohoo ə `kərduu ku. ‘The rope has become twisted-up (not braided).’ vt. bend or twist rope or wire into a non-straight or wavy shape, but without bending it back onto itself or curling it. ŋo ohoo `əm `kərduu. ‘I’m twisting/bending the rope.’ birii `maajib `tɨɨlɨɨ `duu! B: aah! birii kaamaa kəmə! A: ‘I would really like a cigarette.’ B: ‘Aah! Tell me about it; there are no cigarettes about (I’ve been looking for one all afternoon)!’ aci dooluu `caamaa kəmə! ‘Elder Brother hasn’t gone to the village (and I too have been trying to figure out where he might have gone).’ kərnam 2 vt. chop or hack at with -`kər vs:adv. cooperatively. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subjects act in a cooperative way, or help one another in the action indicated by the verb. ɲii `aken great force and little precision, as when chopping down a tree or when very angry. Properly refers to an an instance of chopping in which more than one blow is required to complete the cut; often references chopping apart of non-whole trees, as standing logs or branches from trees. ŋo `hɨɨpoo `əm `kərtuu`rə. ‘I’ll chop down the tree trunk.’ akcəə `gadd `əm `kərloo `tok! ‘Chop off/down the branches!’ `kərnam vt. thrust the pelvis, as `gonnam attɨr ə `pakər `duu. ‘A when having intercourse or with sexual intention. 80 `kəlak kə! `kəlak `kəloo n. beating stick; stick used for beating. int. okay; got it; will do; sure; gotcha. Usage: Interjection indicating full agreement with a proposal. A: al `bə int `laa `dei! B: `kəloo! A: Y’all go safely now! B: Will do! marked as contrary to something the addressee has said or done. Usage: generally pronounced with kəlɨɨ squirrel; variety of reddish jungle squirrel. tortoise; 1 n. Syn: `raakop. 2 n. red kəhuu turtle. kəhuu kə! n. rabbit. pcl. Contrary/contradictive constituent-final particle. Gram: Marks a sentence as information which is contradicts or is otherwise a final glottal stop and a high/level intonation. `korum `gə `rɨnam `ə `əmb `rɨbbee kə! ‘The things that happened in the old days actually *were* like that (although you don’t believe it).’ aci immaa kə! ‘Elder Brother hasn’t gone (contrary to what you had told me earlier)!’ `dagmaa kə! ‘It’s not there (on the tree, contrary to what you told me would be the case)!’ A: `doken maa. B: `doken `duukə! ‘A: It’s disgusting.’ B: ‘It is not; it’s tasty.’ `rɨbum dobum deekə! ‘Don’t make the dust scatter, you hear!’ 81 -gaa `gaahee G -gaa incorrectly targeted; affecting something other than the intended target. Gram: Result vs:adv. suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed at, or results in affecting, some object other than the proper object or the one intended. Also occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-gaa...-yaa”, with the overall sense of ‘affecting everything available’ ɲii `əm tugaa - g to try to jump down.’ gaanam vt. scratch with the nails with significant force, potentially causing a wound, as from a bird’s or cat’s attack, or when a wife fights with her husband; scrape with all fingers, as when taking up balls of rice. vt. knead; soften, as rice when eating. gaaɲom `gaapuu gaapoo gaayap `deekə. ‘You might mistakenly kick someone with your haphazard kicking.’ eggaa `tokee! ‘Write it onto another page!’ n. variety of wasp, yellow or tawny in colour, living underground or in any hole. `gaan n. song. Source: Hindi. Var: gaapuu. nce. See: ilo-gaapoo ‘wasp (variety)’. `gaanam 1 vt. 1 • chant a variety of loud, high-energy chant. 2 • yell or shout at someone. `ɲibo Tamar `ɲogaa `gaaduu. ‘Nyibo Tamar is chanting a Nyogaa.’ See: `ɲogaa ‘chant (variety)’. vt. wave the hand. `ŋom gaayap `dagn `bə `yəə `bəree? ‘Who’s that down there waving at me?’ n. vehicle; Assamese. gaarii car. Source: `gaanam 2 vt. 1 • fetch water; fill a `gaaree `gaalum n. wreathed hornbill. Small container with something, as a substance such as water; pour or decant something as to fill a container. `hilək `lo `issəm `gaaduu. ‘I’m filling the giant bamboo water tank with water.’ 2 • cup; cradle; hold something in and black variety of hornbill. Rhyticeros undulatus. nce. round variety of wasp. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: itum-`gaalum ‘bumblebee’. gaalɨɨ n. variety of massive tree, a cupped or contained fashion, as with cupped hands or when making a receptacle from one’s shirt. 3 • spread the hands. attɨr ə `gaala `dakkaa to, ŋo `jobloo `kaadee. ‘All of you stand there with hands outspread; I’m going with up to 1m diameter trunk and a very reddish wood. Closely related to “`benjo”, but with a slight difference of the bark and a much redder wood. `gaahee Var: `gaasə (P). 1 • spinal cord muscle; n. muscle responsible for the body 82 -gaa...-yaa ganam strength. 2 • element of an “`əbak” ritual gaksi vt. keep or see someone in object, a tightly wrapped leaf running along the object edge. -gaa...-yaa vs:advsr. at everyone; at everything. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb affects or is directed at everything which is available to affect a sexual relationship, especially in secret. `Tajum `ne `bəree `ɲiik ɲim go gaksi `laa `əmko? ‘Was it Tajum who’s been said to be seeing someone’s wife?’ gaŋkoo kaagaa kaayaa vt. look at everyone or everything, systematically as though to scrutinize all. nce. handle of a fortune wand. Usage: Usually occurs in compound. See: agam-gaŋkoo ‘omen of good fortune’. Var: gadd. n. group. ɲii `gad `hɨgɨ ‘these people; this bunch of people’. n:qual. guys. Ɲihɨɨ `gadd `ə ‘the Nishi guys...’ Gram: Plural definite qualifying noun used to follow another noun with a pluralizing sense somewhat like ‘those guys’ or simply ‘more than one’. Not a true plural suffix, since not obligatory when more than one entity is referred-to, and not able to occur in indefinite sentences. However, in definite sentences, is usually best translated by English plural “-s”. `gadə tugaa tuyaa `gai vt. kick everywhere or at everything which is required. adj. excellent. vt. 1 • catch or grab hold gagnam of something with the hand, at moment of catching or when holding afterward; also, to catch a thief, or come to know who the culprit is. oo-`gɨyɨɨ `əm agak-agak `bə gakt `kee. ‘Grab the mustard greens bunch by bunch.’ 2 • grasp, in a mental sense; come ganam 1 vie. scale or climb a vertical to understand a concept or idea; detect the identity of a culprit; figure out who has done something or what has been going on. `gaglaa maa. ‘I can’t figure it out.’ `ŋom SMS jibəə `na `ɲɨjɨr `əm `gaktuu ku. ‘I found out which girl has been sending me SMSs.’ 3 • select; choose (as a partner). surface such as a wall; move (horizontally) while suspended on a vertical surface such as a wall or tree. ŋo `hɨɨn `əm `gaduu. ‘I (am able to) scale trees.’ ganam `am `ɲijɨr `əm ŋo gakkaa - no gagyoo `kee! ‘I’ve picked out that girl - keep your hands off her!’ 4 • occupy, as an area of land. pare; whittle; cut by 2 vt. placing thumb close to blade and drawing off strips or sections from an object, as with a sickle when harvesting rice or with a knife when chopping vegetables to prepare for cooking; cut with short strokes (in any direction, towards or away from self), as when paring a nut or cutting one’s fingernails. Properly, blade must be positioned close to the cutting surface, and must not 83 `gajɨr gamnam deliver an impact in the process of cutting. ŋo `hɨɨpin `əm garə. ‘I’ll pare the wild lemon.’ gacɨɨ `laacɨɨ dɨə. ‘It’s harvest time.’ `rokcik `bə `gapak `tok! ‘Cut it off with a knife!’ ‘I’m a little bit hungry.’ -gam successfully; auspiciously; lucky; with fortune. 2 vs:adv. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action denoted by the verb is successful, fortunate, or auspicious. `gajɨr -gap julienne; cut match-sized pieces from a length of something. vt. iŋgam to, `dəi! ‘Good luck! (when going hunting)’. See: agam ‘luck’. vs:adv. affixed; stable; stuck fast. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something becoming stabilized, affixed to something else, or stuck fast to a surface. `jengap gam 2 v:c.arg. bring home the bacon; be an expert hunter; be successful in matters incumbent on a real man. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “ɲigam” ‘expert hunter’ `nok abo ɲigam gambəə `hiduu ku. ‘They’re becoming friends.’ `abgap `tagap vt. shoot (e.g. an arrow) `duuree? ‘Is your father still bringing home the bacon?’ See: ɲigam ‘expert hunter’. such that it sticks fast in the target. vt. concentrate on what one is hearing; understand and remember what is said. vt. concentrate, as on work; memorize something, as a procedure or list. vt. strike a surface, as a log with a dao, causing the blade to become stuck. gam n. village headman. Assamese. Source: `gamnam məəgap pagap `yeggap vt. stick to something; become fastened to something. `bəlaa `abakə `ŋok lalɨk `əm `yeggap `duuku. ‘The jackfruit resin has stuck to my shirt.’ vt. 1 Var: `gəmnam. support a side blindly; join or support the majority simply because it has higher numbers, without regard to what is right or wrong. `nunu agom al-`pomaa `əm hɨkkaa `maabə `doola gəmpee `gobə `gəmməm `yookem. ‘Don’t just blindly join the majority without considering the merits of each point.’ `gamnam -gam bit by bit. Gram: 1 adjs:der. Incremental adjective suffix, usually redubplicated as “-gamgam”. Indicates a progressive, step by step, increase of the quality indicated by an adjective, usually in terms of a small, inceptive amount. `dolɨɨ `gamduu. ‘I feel like a bit of a snack.’ ŋo `kanoo gamgam `duu. play. Gram: 1 vi. Semi-meaningful final element of the discontinuous compound verb “`janam-`gamnam” ‘play joyfully; be fashionable’ `bulu `ɨrgaa `jaabə `jalaa `gamla `rɨd `kee. ‘They were totally absorbed in playing.’ gamnam 1 vt. fasten, fix or bind, as a stabilizing pole to a length of wall using a strip of bamboo, or when working around the edges of a basket. cɨkc `əm gamt `kee. ‘Fasten the wall binding.’ 84 `gamnam `giɲci `gamnam gambuu gambə n. 2 Var: `ŋamnam (L, P). vt. bite. `ikii `ə tabb `əm `gaŋk kaa. ‘The dog killed the snake.’ nce. See: loobo-gambuu ‘house crest’. beam framing the exterior of a “ɲoopee” wall, used to keep the wall from buckling or otherwise loosening. n. variety of ornament worn by a bride. Var: `gaii (P). n. resembler; one who resembles something; `gɨɨcaa-`hɨɨcaə similar thing. holuu `gacaa `garɨɨ go; `gɨii `hɨii `ə holuu `gaii nam `garɨɨ go. ‘Youth is like climbing a fence; growing old is like descending the other side.’ adj. 1 • equidistant from a point. tribe found primarily in central/lower West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, and also in areas of Upper Siang, East Siang, and Upper Subansiri. 2 • name garop `garɨɨ of a Tibeto-Burman language of the Tani branch spoken primarily in central Arunachal Pradesh, North East India. Recognized as an Official Language of the State of Arunachal Pradesh in September 2008. `galəə n. fabric; woven fabric. Often used to refer to a skirt, but properly refers to the fabric prior to being worn. Once worn as a skirt, it may be called a “bəcək”. Source: Minyong (Adi). Var: `gasəə (P). n. variety of river fish. Neolissochilus spp. `gahee `ləpaa `garɨɨ `hiccəə `bolo ‘right down in the utter centre’. resembling in manner or appearance. no aci `garɨɨ `ə. ‘You look like Elder Brother.’ ərək `garɨɨ `bə doyoo `kee. ‘Don’t eat like a pig.’ 2 • resemble; `giinam vt. transport; bring or carry something in a wagon or other vehicle as a load. `giicaa rə. ‘(I) will transport it up there.’ traak ə `ɨlɨɨ `əm `giiduu. ‘The truck transports stones.’ vt. collar; pull or pull at something by grasping the whole, e.g. when gripping someone’s entire knee and pulling. `ləbɨɨ `əm `yoogo `laa giid-giid `dakko? ‘Why are you grabbing at my knee?’ garək gartə n. notch in an arrow where giinam the bowstring is set. n. variety of ornament worn by a bride. See: garop ‘ornament variety’. `garnam vi. 1 • hatch, of a bird’s egg. porok `gə `ao `garkaa ku. ‘The chicken’s eggs have hatched.’ 2 • germinate, of a seed. 3 • bear a child, in a poetic sense. 4 • speak in a variety of ritual `giŋgɨɨ `giccii `giɲci frame “`igin” basket. n. spine for an adj. muddy, of a river. chant. `Galoo name. 1 • name of a Tani Var: `ginsi (P). n. variety of densely-woven basket with back-straps used for marketing, herb-collecting, and light labour in general. Relatively smaller than an “`igin” and most often 85 `gin- gubnam used by women. See: `igin ‘large densely-woven conical basket’. guuɲɨɨ-`monam vt. levy a fine. `gin- Classifier for “`igin” (tightly woven) baskets or “`igin” basketfuls of any substance, such as grains or small fruits. Gram: clfqr. `ɨhɨɨ `coonam guuɲɨɨ `morə. ‘I’m going to levy a fine on the person who stole my wood.’ guuɲɨɨ-`guutə `guuɲək `guutə Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `igin `giɲɲi ‘two igin baskets’. See: `igin ‘large, dense n. large penalty, fine, or bride price. See: guuɲɨɨ n. convex knot on a tree. ‘penalty’; `guutə ‘large penalty’. conical basket’. `ginnam (2) some substance off a surface with a finger, as when scooping up the liquid and small pieces of rice remaining on a plate after eating. ŋokii `əm `gilla `doduu. ‘I’ll eat the fish guts by scraping them up with my finger.’ 1 vt. 1 • wipe nce. large penalty. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: guuɲɨɨ-`guutə ‘large penalty’. nce. variety of Usage: generally occurs `guupə associated verb See: `guupə-yornam (variety)’. chant. with “yornam”. ‘chant of `guupə yornam `gutə 2 • whittle or scrape pieces from v. variety traditional ceremonial chant. a surface by cutting forehand, i.e. with the blade moving inward towards oneself. pətak `əm `kaaken `doobə `gitt `kee. ‘Whittle out the container nicely.’ nce. See: `gutə-yapom ‘variety of “yapom” spirit’. n. `gutə-yapom `gunam `gippak shave off, as something unwanted. `gippak `tokee! ‘Scrape it out/away!’ vt. 2 “yapom” spirit. ‘demon spirit’. variety of See: yapom `ginnam (2) v:c.arg. dirty water; make water dirty. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`higik” ‘muddy water’ `higik-`ginnam ‘to vi. burn; be burning. `ɨhɨɨ `ə `guduu. ‘The wood’s burning.’ aɨɨ `əm uun `rɨdoo `bə `guŋam `duuku. ‘He got himself all burned to the point of being wounded.’ make water dirty/muddied’. gubnam guugaa `guucup guuɲɨɨ n. Jew’s harp; mouth harp. n. concave knot on a tree. n. 1 • penalty; fine transgressive behaviour. 2 • bride for price; payment, generally in trade, which the family of a man must arrange with the family of a woman whom that man hopes to marry. bear fruit, of rice 1 vi. paddy; of rice paddy, be at the stage just before full ripeness at which the stalk has borne full fruits and are beginning to weigh it down, but before it is ripe and ready to harvest. `ammo `gubduu ku. ‘The paddy is ripe.’ vt. incubate eggs. porok ə pɨpp `əm `gubduu. ‘The chicken is incubating the eggs.’ gubnam 2 vi. lean, as a tree. `hɨɨn `ə 86 -`gum -gee əttam `peeləə `bə gupcoo `duulaa `ka! ‘The tree is leaning over the cliff edge!’ gurnam -`gum vs:adv. win. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject wins over the object in the action indicated by a verb. vt. win a contest. vt. win an argument. Usage: (P). as a whirlpool; spin or rotate at speed; churn, as water in a high current; rumble, as a thing under pressure and about to surge forth. `iss `ə `gurduu. ‘The water is churning.’ vi. 2 • grumble, 1 • whirl, `rɨgum `gumɨr n. of a hungry `meŋgum stomach. pigpen. See: `gumrə ‘pigpen’. gurnə-`naanə gumnam v:c.arg. rumble, of thunder. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “doogum” ‘thunder’ doogum-gumnam the n. element of a loin loom, a bamboo pole set at the very top side. Can fold under the “`rubuu”, which it is set immediately above. Syn: naŋko.n. back (of the human body). n. bullet. Source: Assamese. gurbə gulii rumbling of See: doogum ‘storm’. thunder. `gumpaa `gumrə n. pigpen built on the ground (not on a raised platform). Var: `gumɨr (P). n. pigpen, traditionally located beneath the toilet area of a house, when it is located on the balcony. Also refers to more modern-style pigpens, which are generally separate from the house and raised a few feet from the ground. vs:adv. assist; help. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in help or out of assistance to the object, as when the object is unable to or does not know how to do some activity by himself. guluu n. fireplace border; wooden border around a fireplace, on which food and glasses may be placed if it is large enough. -`gee vs:adv. maintain a gap. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an existing gap is maintained in performing the action indicated by the verb. vt. spare something by working around it. `mogee -gee -gur `bɨɨk `rɨgur namm `əm ŋo `hablaa kumaa. ‘I can’t count how much he’s helped me.’ `bɨɨ `bull `əm ayaa `məəpaa `bə `məəlaa `bulləm `rɨgur rə məəto. ‘He felt sorry for them and he wanted to help them.’ guree n. horse. Source: Assamese. vs:asp. Disjunct perfective suffix. Gram: Occurs only in verbs suffixed by Direct/Experienced Perfective “-baa” or Action nominalization in “-nam”. In a declarative sentence, indicates that either a second or a third person subject (someone other than either the speaker) performs the action indicated by the verb. In an interrogative sentence, indicates that the subject is second person (the addressee). In an interrogative sentence, indicates that the actor is a third person. Cannot be used with first person subjects. an! no doggee 87 `geekar go `bakə! ‘What? You’ve already had your meal!’ `əə, `ŋok hoo `əm `nɨkkə jiggee kuba. ‘Wah, my cow’s been gored to pieces (by something/somebody other than myself).’ `bɨɨ doggee `baree? ‘Did he eat?’ no `təttə `maabə tɨɨgee `ko! ‘You’re the only one who smoked up (the cigarettes) for heaven’s sake!’ vs:mod. go ahead (and x). Gram: Permissive imperative modal suffix indicating that the speaker agrees with a standing proposal or query concerning whether the addressee should or should be allowed to to something, and is telling the addressee to ‘go ahead’ and do it. Usually, but not obligatorily followed by “kee” ‘Light Hortative’ or “kaa” ‘Advisative Hortative’. indicating that something becomes dirty as a result of the action indicated by the verb `haŋgek vi. slip or slide on something trodden-on, such as excrement, dirtying oneself. gennam (2) vi. 1 • lie down to rest, but not to sleep. `gellɨɨ `duu. ‘(I) want to lie down. 2 • lie collapsed; lie prostrate, as a shot animal. vt:poet. sacrifice a hundred red roosters. `korum `ogo `ɲitə `Gooyɨɨ polɨɨ gebbee `yukə. ‘It’s said that once upon a time Master Gooyɨɨ sacrificed a hundred red roosters.’ gekkup vi. lie facing downward, `immen `geekee! ‘Go ahead and roam!’ (as though giving permission). as the male in a sexual position; be male, by implication. `geekar `geekoo geenam n. fishing pole. Usage: (P). gellek vi. lie facing upward, as See: əkər ‘fishing pole’. n. mountain pass; mountain valley through which it is possible to travel. 1 • heal, of a cut 1 vi. wound; become fully healed, and no longer in any special danger of becoming worse or infected. uun ə geekaa ku. ‘The wound has healed over.’ 2 • seal, of a surface which has the female in a sexual position; be female, by implication. gekkup `nag `ree maa gellek `nag `ree? ‘Is (your baby) a boy or a girl?’ `Gensii name. Gensi, name of the major town in Gensi circle in southwest West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, from which the name of Gensi circle is taken. n. quiver; container for gebbuu go been cut or breached, as a gap in the earth or a cut wound. Overspread; cover completely; creep over, as a skin disease or a parasitic plant. `hɨɨn `əm tar-tamaa ə `geelup `laa. ‘The creeper overspread the tree, covering it.’ arrows. art. a; an; one. Gram: Indefinite or Individuating article. Marks typically indefinite, often individuated, but not necessarily singular referents. Cannot co-occur with Topic or Accusative markers, nor with the Imperfective copula. Usually introduces new or unknown discourse referents. When occurring with a single predicative nominal, -`gek vs:adv. dirty. Gram: Result suffix 88 -`go goonam usually has a mirative sense, as ‘what? I didn’t expect that!’ In some cases, has a more classifier-like use, licensing a reference which would not be possible with a stand-alone noun. ganam `gona `əi? ‘One something. Gram: Directional suffix usually occurring on motion verbs, indicating that the subject ‘goes around’ something in performing the action indicated by the verb. uugoo (betelnut) which has already been cut, (that’s what you want) right?’ ŋo `looɲi go ramto. ‘I was sick for two days.’ aas go `bəree. ‘I suppose we’ll be going home now.’ (lit. ‘I suppose it’ll be a case of us going home.’). `ee go! ‘What? It’s shit!! (I thought it was mud I was stepping on)’. `yaddɨ go `aɲ-ɲaməə aarə `dɨɨ, `ək go `igin `əm `tuubam hirə. ‘However many women come, that many (baskets) will be kept together.’ pcl. O! Gram: Initial element of Split vocative name particle “NAME go...NAME a” ‘O my dear NAME’ hid `kubə `motuu `laa. ‘We made (the fire) such that it would shine all around/everywhere.’ `poon `urgoo rə. ‘We’ll go around collecting fermented rice from everyone.’ yɨggoo raggoo goo vi. skirt; circumscribe. vt. surround something with fencing. onom. sound of a person shouting. `Googar `googee goodaa name. name of a village in Likabali circle. n. arc. nce. ladder element of a Aɲi Mumsi go, Aɲi Mumsa...‘O my dear Elder Sister Mumsi...’ -`go vs:adv. warm; hot. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something becomes warm or hot as a result of the action indicated by the verb. “`murkoo-goodaa”. See: `murkoo-goodaa bamboo ladder’. ‘ritual `goonam 1 vi. pass, of time; spend `cɨrgo gər `laa `tɨɨduu. ‘(We) drink it after warming it.’ ŋo `tɨgo rə. ‘I’ll warm it by putting it (on the fire).’ `romgo `tokee. ‘Heat it up by roasting it.’ `goe time on a particular thing. `ŋuɲɲik agom `jabt `kolo aloo ə `goobik kaa. ‘We spent the whole day talking.’ `nok rənam `əm `ɲijɨr `lo `goolɨk `mum toku `kee. ‘Go ahead and spend all your life on girls only.’ n. variety of chirping insect, possibly a variety of cicada, with an insistent, buzzsaw-like chirp which dies out gradually after several iterations. goonam -goo vs:adv. before. Gram: Manner 1 suffix indicating that the subject acts before the object does in the action indicated by the verb. tugoo ‘first vt. drive or lead an 1 animal or a child; not possible, or not appropriate, for an adult human. ŋo hoo ə `goopak `duu. ‘I’m leading the cow away.’ `bɨɨ hob `gocin goaa to. ‘He also brought some mithuns.’ vi. 1 • swell; expand; 2 bulge; bloat, of something spherical, bulbous, or rounded, as a full or fattened stomach. goonam to kick’. ŋo `nunn `əm `caagoo kaa. ‘I went up before y’all did.’ -goo 2 vs:adv. around; around 89 goonam `goŋku pɨpp ə `bɨɨk akii `əm `goog kaa. ‘Eggs have bloated his belly (with gas).’ 2 • rise, as the level of water; Effectively, a one-sided version of a “goodaa”. See: `murkoo-goodaa ‘ritual bamboo ladder’. grow up, as a child. `əm `hamrəm, `hambuk to, `hogo `gooto. ‘If you stepped in it, you sunk in, it would come up to here.’ 3 • inflate; overinflate; grow out -gok vs:adv. cracked. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is cracked or cracked open as a result of the action indicated by the verb deegok ‘boil something, causing it to crack (such as a potato)’. of proportion; of speech, injudicious or insouciant. agom `əm `goom `yookaa. ‘Don’t let your words spiral out of control (in boasting or threatening).’ ŋo ɲii `əm `cemmo `lɨɨmaa məəbee; `ŋok aci agom `əm `goom kaa. ‘I didn’t want anyone to know (about the project); (but) my elder brother let the cat out of the bag/spread the news all over.’ `gogɨɨ n. element of a “`hibok” fishing dam, a stone/pole prop used to restrain the current and prevent the dam elements from being eroded and washed away. n. fishing dam elements, in general. See: `gogɨɨ ‘dam element (variety)’; `gobə ‘dam element (variety)’. vi. 1 • sing (a song). ŋo 1 `gaan `gogduu. ‘I’m singing a song.’ 2 • chirp, `gogɨɨ-`gobə gognam goonam v:c.arg. make an enclosure. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “luugoo” ‘enclosure’ luugoo goonam ‘to 2 make an enclosure’. goorii n. clock; watch; timepiece. Source: Assamese. name. name of a village in of an insect. gopuu-`goee `ə `gogduu ku. ‘The “gopuu-`goee” insects are starting to chirp.’ vt. call someone, as to beckon. ŋo `Goorii `gooree goorəə `bɨəm gokto. ‘I called (to) him.’ central West Siang district. n. white variety of sweet potato. Usage: (P). See: maapuu ‘white sweet potato (L)’. n. spring action trap which can be set up to depend on a naturally-tensed object, such as bamboo. When an animal trips a laid stick, the trap springs closed and catches the animal in a vise. n. ritual object consisting of a single bamboo stick with a series of several looped bamboo sticks affixed to one side only. gognam v:c.arg. crack; breach. 2 Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “deggok” ‘crack in earth’s surface’ deegok gognam of the earth’s surface, to crack, as in an earthquake. `goŋkak n. stutter. vt. stutter; stammer, in speech. ŋo `gooləm agom `əm `goŋkak `duu. ‘I’m stammering over the word.’ Syn: `koŋak. `goŋku n. classical language; archaic language. A set of lexemes which is used very commonly by priests and orators, 90 goŋkə `gobə and more rarely by ordinary speakers. Believed to represent an earlier form of Galo, its use is considered to be a high cultural skill. platform a bit it will be fine.’ gonna goŋkə adj. n. open mouth, as when yawning. pos. one of (them); some of (it/them). Gram: Postposition marking a quantity noun as a portion taken from a set, or a common noun as an individual taken from a group. open-mouthed, yawning. n. yawn. as when goŋkə-`aajin vi. yawn. no goŋk-ajin `duu. ‘You’re yawning.’ See: goŋkə ‘open-mouthed’; `aajin ‘stretch’. `gojoo n. bamboo platform, either semi-detached or fully detached from a Galo house, generally unroofed. May be used as an extra balcony for resting during fine weather, as well as a convenient location for sun-drying clothing, chilli peppers or other such things. pos. next; following. Gram: Subsequential postposition to a time noun, marking it as the next, following or ensuing time unit after the one nearest to the time of reference. `ar `gon `og `bulu `og atuu `gonna kudaa, dumpaa compɨk lo `ŋəəlɨk kaa. ‘And then again some of them crawled under the pillow.’ `mɨɨ adaa `gonnam, `paloo gər `laa, adin lo təktaa kaa. ‘After cutting down half of it, he cut it again into the meat.’ `ŋok yaamee `ogo, ɲii `gonna hocər go `apto. ‘Back in my childhood, a guy shot a stag.’ gop- clfqr. Classifier for handspans (measured lengths from tip of thumb to tip of little finger with all fingers outstretched). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. gobum ‘three handspans’. See: agop ‘handspan’. `gona `gobə 1 n. element of a “`hibok” aɨɨ-aɨɨ `gə nam lo iŋkaa ku. ‘The next morning they went back to their own homes.’ `pool `gon `alo, ŋo `ləken go maa `rəm `ləɲi go `caarə. ‘I’ll visit you once or twice next month.’ fishing dam, a horizontal beam placed across the breadth of the dam, used as an upper framing point to strengthen the apparatus. `gobə gonam vi. use a stone slab trap; trap small animals by laying an “odo” stone slab trap. ŋo od `got `bə inrə. ‘I’m going trapping.’ vt. raise a platform; erect a platform, such as a hunting platform or house balcony. `gojoo aɲɲii `nago `golen boolo al deedoo. ‘If you raise the `gonam Var: `gəb. pos. until (a time); 2 up to (a point); to the point that (a state/condition) is reached; when it comes to (some topic/idea/quality). `ayum `gobə `jilaa `kee. ‘Give me a handful’s worth.’ `ij `gobə puuluu kambəə `duuku `na. ‘It’s still white to this day.’ `poolo `gobə `hogo miŋgoo `hilaa `rəduu. ‘For up to a month they chased each other around here.’ `cennam `gəb da, `maaji `cenduu. ‘(He can’t speak very well, but) when it comes to (conscious) 91 gobnam gɨɨci-gɨɨten knowledge, he knows a lot.’ gomraa gobnam measure by or in handspans. ŋo `hɨɨtak `əm gopkaa bee. ‘I measured out the plank (in terms of handspans).’ See: agop ‘handspan’. vi. gom- clfr. Classifier for vocalisms, including mouths and words. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. nappaa `gomtə `na code language; pig Latin; variety of purposefully mixed-up speech designed to confuse a listener or hide one’s meaning, as “`juuka” for “`kajuu” ‘let’s go’. `bull `ə `tacen maad `bə gomraa `bə `menlaa `ju. ‘Let’s talk in pig Latin so they won’t understand us.’ n. vs:adv. quickly; immediately. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that an action is performed quickly or immediately tɨɨkum gorbaa `duu. -gor `hoopen `ə. ‘This one with a big mouth is a chameleon.’ See: agom ‘speech’. `gomuk n. 1 • intonation; phrasing; sentence. 2 • language; ‘She gets drunk quickly.’ `laagor `tokee! ‘Pick up (the telephone) quickly!’ higor `maaduu. ‘(They) don’t die quickly (of doves).’ dialect; form of speech. `gorə `gomcɨr Var: `gomsɨr (P). n. speech fragment; building block of speech. May be used to translate English ‘morpheme’, ‘word’, ‘phrase’ or ‘sentence’, although is less often used to translate ‘word’ than “agom”. n. platform made for observation purpose, as for hunting or for household/village security (as opposed to for resting, e.g.). See: `gojoo ‘resting platform’. `gorbak `golaa Var: borbak (P). n. fork in a tree; valley between two branches. cnj. and. Gram: Numeral ɨrɨɨ `golaa aum conjunction `gomjup adj. closed mouth. vt. close the mouth. nappaa `əm `gomjup toku `kee! ‘Close your mouth!’ ‘thirty-three’. `gomnam `gombəə ŋo `ikii `əm `gomkaa. ‘I hugged the dog.’ vt. hug; embrace. golo `bə adj. overheard directly; 1 heard as a result of being in proximity to the sound source, rather than having been communicated by another person. 2 Var: `golbə. pos. even up to. Usage: Lare only; Puugoo: “`gobə”. `bɨm gognamə `ij `golbə aamaa da. ‘(Though) he was called, he hasn’t arrived even now.’ n. axe handle. See: gɨɨci-gɨɨten ‘impede’. vi. impede or disturb gɨɨkoo gɨɨci vce. gɨɨci-gɨɨten `gombəə n. word, especially in written language. gommaa adj. mute; dumb, unable to speak at all. i.e. someone’s activities or ability to gɨɨci-gɨɨten act effectively. `empaa! ‘You’re disturbing my activities!’ 92 gɨɨtuu `gɨrnam gɨɨtuu gɨɨtum gɨɨten gɨɨdaa n. house pillar. n. hammer; pile-driver. vce. See: gɨɨci-gɨɨten similar to a “`rəətə” and carrying a very dangerous sting. See: `rəətə ‘nettle tree variety’. ‘impede’. nce. household management; management of household affairs. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: gɨɨdaa-`isi ‘homestead’. `gɨɨlɨɨ -gɨk cockfeathers; 2 n. coming off a cock’s tail. feathers vs:adv. impaled. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is impaled as a result of the action indicated by the verb. dəggɨk gɨɨdaa-`isi n. homestead; area used by people for working and living; means of sustenance from the land. gɨɨdaa-`iss `əm `ɲɨɨkaa. ‘I’ve organized everything for my sustenance from the land.’ See: gɨɨdaa ‘household management’; `isi ‘water’. ace. See: `gɨɨdin-`hɨɨbaa adj. successful in hinam ‘to impale oneself while walking; strike oneself on a pointed object while walking, causing it to break the skin’. `gɨcaa Var: `gɨsaa (P). n:poet. youth. Usage: Goŋku. vt. 1 • go or go to. Usage: sense common in Eastern 2 • sneak; `gɨnam `gɨɨdin Tani but rare or archaic in Galo. move stealthily. hor-`mootum `gɨnam ‘going hunting’. See: ɲaməə-`gɨnam ‘sleep around (man)’. 3 • trudge; move around in a ‘successful’. `gɨɨdin-`hɨɨbaa gɨɨnam 1 life; prosperous. prepare; get ready; ready oneself, as for departure. gɨɨt `kee, `kaju, `inlaa `ju! ‘Get ready, come on, let’s go!’ vi. 2 watery or muddy area. ŋo `hil `gɨlak maa. ‘I can’t move around in swampy areas.’ 4 • plough. rɨkk `əm `gɨkaa ku. gɨɨnam gɨɨnam vi. live one’s life; survive. gɨɨnam-hɨɨnam ə `yoom `bəla? ‘How’s life these days?’ plant or erect 3 vt. something (e.g. a pillar) in the ground by simply stabbing it in, i.e. without digging a hole beforehand. ŋo luugɨɨ `əm gɨɨkaa. ‘I drove the fencepost into the ground.’ vi. live one’s life. ‘We’ve ploughed the fields.’ `am `ləraa nam `laalɨk `paaku `laa, haal `gɨraa nam `laalɨk `paaku `laa, rɨkk `əm `rɨto. ‘We took in planters, we took in ploughers, and did the fields.’ gɨyɨɨ gɨɨnam-hɨɨnam gɨɨpə `gɨɨlɨɨ `Gɨɨbɨɨ 1 nce. variety of mustard eaten as a vegetable by Galo and, especially, Minyong Adi. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `oo-gɨyɨɨ ‘variety of mustard’. n:poet. old age. Usage: Goŋku. vt. grasp and tug; grab n. goitre, on the neck. name. name of a Galo clan. n. variety of tree, about the gɨyəə `gɨrnam size of a jackfruit, with leaves and pull with both hands, as when saving someone who is 93 `gə- `gə `lokə falling. akcəə `əm `gɨrkaa. ‘I grabbed the branch.’ the ‘brought’ person. ŋo `nom nam `gə- clfr. Classifier for cords of wood. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `gəppii ‘four cords (of wood)’. See: `əgə ‘cord `bolo acin dog rə. ‘I’ll take you down to the house for a meal.’ `nom ŋo kaag rə. ‘I’ll take you to see it (the movie).’ iŋgə (of wood)’. `gə pos. 1 • ‘s; of. Gram: Genitive case marker Usage: occurs as a noun vt. lead someone (somewhere). `nom `joola inrə, doorə `bə iŋgərə `nom! ‘He’ll snatch you away, carry you away with the wind!’ vt. take on someone as a spouse, as a brother’s wife after he has died; support someone as a live-in partner after some misfortune. phrase postposition (enclitic). Obligatorily marks possessor nouns (not pronouns) in a possession construction. Also has Comitative sense ‘with’ when occurring in a Comitative construction [X gv V-ko lo] ‘V-ing with X’. Bojɨr `gəlaa Bohar `gə `ləgaa `bə ŋo `saa `morə. ‘I’ll make tea for Bojwr and Bohar.’ 2 • via; by way of. Gram: Viative postposition marking a noun which is not itself a goal or target, but which is passed by way of or in the general direction of in the course of some event. `hokkə `al `Googar `duugə doogə vt. sleep with someone; make love to someone. `bɨəm ŋo `doog `rənna. ‘I’m going to sleep with her, got it?’ vt. chase someone or something; drive something away (as an animal). hoo `əm mingə `tok! ‘Drive the cow away!’ vt. 1 • look after someone; take care of their basic needs. miŋgə rəgə `al `minlen `laa, `Googar `gə Hilɨɨ minaa `laa. ‘(I) chased it from here over to Googar, and via Googar chased it here to Sili.’ 2 • have an affair with someone, particularly someone else’s married wife. 3 • by means of. Gram: Mediative sense of the genitive postposition marking the ‘means’ through which an activity is accomplished (such as the vehicle of a motion predicate) `gə `lokə `alə `gə ~ gaarii `gə `indu ‘go on foot ~ by car’. See: -`kə ‘Genitive pronominal suffix’. -gə vs:val. lead; take; bring. Gram: Comitative suffix indicating that the subject ‘brings’ the object together with him on an activity of which the subject is the leader. On intransitive verbs, functions to add an object noun to the sentence understood as Var: `gəlkə. pos. since; from. Gram: Postposition marking a time noun as a point in time since which (if past) or from which (if present or future) an event or state has endured or will endure. May also mark a non-temporal noun in the same way, if being construed as a point in time (as ‘since Gandhi’). `korum `jimii `okkə; Abo Tanii `gə `lokkə ‘Since the beginning of the world; since from (the days of) Abo Tani.’ `hir `gə `lokkə ŋo acin domaa. ‘I haven’t had food since this morning.’ `alloo `gə 94 gəen `gəmnam ‘from `lokkə (onwards)’. tomorrow gəen n. back-strap harness for a `rapkom gətup kaa. ‘I bumped my head on the fireplace shelving.’ loin loom, used to create and maintain tension so that the loom remains aloft. See: aen ‘sheath strap’. `gəkur vt. have one’s back to something. vi. feel good. ŋo aɨɨ ə `gəken -`gəə vs:val. touch; onto. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something touching something else. `gəken `duu. ‘I’m feeling good/fit (lit. I’m carrying myself well).’ gərəp gərɨk vi. get up; get up in the `dɨgəə ‘drip onto something’. `nom `tiggəə kaa. ‘I’ve dabbed you (with my finger).’ ŋo `batak `əm `hamgəə `duu. ‘I’m stepping on the floorboards.’ Gram: Applicative suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb entails the subject depending on or otherwise being attached to the object `bɨɨ ager `kaarəm `ŋom morning. gərəp tokaa! ‘Get up (it’s time to wake up)!’ face someone. vt. something or attach; depend on. 1 • carry or wear something, `mengəə `duu. ‘If he has work to do he calls me (out of attachment or my necessity to its successful completion).’ `tuugəə ‘support something of necessity, because it cannot stand by itself’. on one’s body or in one’s possession. ŋo `ej gəmaa! ‘I’m not wearing any clothes!’ məənam go ŋo gəkaa ku. ‘I had a feeling/thought.’ no `uii `gəduu `pə. ‘A devil is probably possessing you (making you do bad things).’ 2 • have a disease. `bɨɨ hɨgyaa `gəduu. ‘He has a cough (as a disease).’ 2 • take after or carry after `məəgəə depend on something. `məəgəə `haggəə kaamaa. ‘I haven’t so much as a shoulder to lean on.’ ŋo `məəgəə haa kaaku maa. ‘I’ve got no-one left I can depend on.’ vt. `gəkoo n. base-frame of a loin loom, to which the “gəen” back-strap is fixed. Section closest to the body, which may rest on the lap of the weaver. vi. feel or be disposed in a 1 certain way, i.e. well or with sickness; be positioned, of one’s body. `bɨɨ akii al `maab `gəduu. ‘He has a stomach ache.’ ŋo someone, generally an elder family member such as one’s mother, father, or elder sibling; resemble a sibling in features. ŋo `ŋok aci `ne `gəduu. ‘I resemble my brother (in features).’ gənam 2 vt. hurl; throw something very heavy, and which requires some effort to throw. gənam `gəmen n. ornament; item of jewellery. `gəmnam vi. collapse, of something large and ceiling-like, as a house, a ceiling or roof, or a 95 `gərə gərbə tree of reasonable size. namm ə `gəmkaa. ‘The house collapsed.’ `gərə vt. rub with the back, as an animal scratching itself, making a mark on something as a result. hobb ə turgɨɨ `bə gər `laa `dagduu. ‘The mithun is standing there scratching its back against the pillar.’ -gərə ə `yoombə `meŋken `doobə? ‘You say this, he says that - how will you arrive at a consensus?’ `əm mogərə, `aəm aɲɲii go `pɨtə gərə `ahoo `nam `laakaa to, `ɨlɨɨ `əm. ‘After doing that, get the one which is a bit long and (yet) fat, the stone.’ əmgərə `lacin...‘However; at the same time...’ vs:nf. moreover; however; furthermore; yet; although. Gram: gərək Additive concessive suffix indicating that in addition to the marked verb, something else which is potentially contrasting or unexpected is also the case. May also be used alone, with an implication ‘and yet (something other than this should properly be the case)’ əhə! ‘diin’ əmgərə! ‘Aya! onom. crack; crunch; sound of a stick or tree branch breaking. gərnam vt. wind; crank; twist e.g. a pole to loosen or tighten fabric that is wrapped around it (not used for twisting rope). gərbə I said “diin”, moreover (i.e., rather than using the proper Galo word for “day”)!’ no `əm meŋgərə, `bɨɨ `əm əŋgərə...agom n. skirt for a ritual effigy, formed from folded-over leaves wrapped tightly around the effigy base. 96 -`ŋaa `ŋanam Q -`ŋaa empty result; null result; void result. Gram: Result vs:adv. - q that the action indicated by the verb has no result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb has no result, does not connect with the expected target (and in fact connects with no target) or has an impotent or empty effect. Often found in semi-reduplicated form “-`ŋaa...-`raa”. `tuŋaa ‘kick or `koŋaa-`koraa vi. speech-impaired. `caaŋaa-`caaraa -`ŋak vi. go (up) on a wild goose chase. See: -`ŋaa ‘empty result’. move the foot and not find any target’. `naaŋaa ‘throw something at a void, thinking there’s a target (although there is not)’. `hamŋaa ‘to stumble into a hole while walking’. vs:adv. intensely; intently. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb happens in an intense or intentful manner. pori riŋak hila duunəmə, tapamaa. ‘I was studying so intently, I couldn’t hear you.’ `ŋaanam vi. 1 • be lost; get lost. ŋo `kaaŋak `ɲɨrŋak `ŋagnam vt. gaze intently. `ŋaaduu. ‘I’m lost (as when walking around in the jungle).’ 2 • be a wastrel; be in a condition vi. laugh like mad; laugh so hard that no sound comes out. vi. 1 • be lost. of having spent or wasted one’s money or possessions. ŋo `ŋaaduu ku. ‘I’ve become a wastrel.’ 3 • be wasted; be or have been 2 • get out of or quit a place; take frittered away fruitlessly, as of money. `ŋok `murkoo `ə `ŋaakaa. ‘My money’s been lost/frittered away.’ vt. 1 • lose one’s way or direction. off; quit someone; leave someone, as a wife or husband. ŋo `ŋagr ku. ‘I’m getting out of here/leaving you.’ 3 • roam; go off in no particular direction, not caring where one goes. vt. lose one’s way. ŋo bədaa `əm `ŋakkaa. ‘I’ve lost the way.’ ŋo bədaa `əm `ŋaakaa. ‘I’ve lost the way.’ something; fritter something away fruitlessly. ŋo ɲidaa lo yaakaa go `ŋaat ba. ‘I spent tons at/for my marriage.’ ŋo `murkoo `əm `əmum `bə `ŋaakaa. ‘I wasted the money uselessly.’ 2 • waste `ŋagmen vi. roam around; take an aimless stroll. `alloo aɲɲigo `ŋagmen kaataade. ‘I’m just going to go take a bit of a stroll over there.’ vi. separate off from a `ŋaglen group. -`ŋaa...-`raa vs:advsr. no result. Gram: Split result suffix indicating `ŋanam vi. breathe heavily; pant; 97 ŋanər ŋinnam be winded, as after exercising; have no remaining stamina. ŋo `ŋaduu ku. ‘I’m panting (from exhaustion).’ `ŋan `tokee! ‘Take a breather! grunt-like sound made from the nose. `yubŋak `laa “ŋarak” `əmlaa...‘sleeping deeply and snoring...’ (lit. ‘and saying “ŋarak”...’). ŋanər `ŋapee -ŋam vi. rest. n. variety of fish. ŋarsi Labeo n. dew. -`ŋii devdevi. Var: -`ŋam (emphatic form). vs:adv. all; everything; finished; completely. Gram: Exhaustive suffix indicating that all or every one of a plural subject (of an intransitive verb) or object (of a transitive verb) participates in or is affected by the action indicated by the verb. When the subject of an activity verb is not plural usually indicates that the action is finished or done completely vs:adv. join. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject joins another actor as a co-participant in the action indicated by the verb. no acin `dorr `əm, `ŋoocin `doŋii rə. ‘If you eat rice, I will do the same.’ -ŋik vs:val. extinguish. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something (usually, a fire or light) is extinguished as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. extinguish a flame due to food or water boiling over the pot. vt. extinguish a flame by blowing it out. ŋo kendəl `əm miŋŋik kaa. ‘I blew out the candle.’ nce. See: ŋiŋkə-tao ‘pimple’. n. aloo ə looŋam `taduu ku. ‘The day is about to be over.’ `ək pətaa-kobuu ə kaaŋam `duu! ‘The small animals all watched!’ `uii `gadd `əm gogŋam gərə `kula. ‘They called all the spirits together.’ `piiŋik miŋŋik ceŋŋam `rɨŋam vt. know everything. ŋiŋkə vt. finish a task. ŋo porii `əm `rɨŋam toba. ‘I finished studying (for tonight). Var: ŋamnam (P). vt. ŋiŋkə-tao ‘thorn’. pimple. See: tao `ŋamnam -ŋar -ŋin bite. Syn: `gamnam. vs:adv. spilled. Gram: Result suffix indicating that part of an object or substance falls outside the intended target as a result of the action indicated by the verb. doŋar vs:adv. all; exhaustively. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject acts on all available objects, of every possible variety, in terms of the event/state indicated by the verb. doŋin `lamaa. ‘(I) can’t eat all (of the various quantities; there are too many).’ ‘of rice, for some to fall on the ground while eating’. ŋinci-polee `pɨŋar ŋarak vt. miss while pouring, such that some amount spills outside the glass. expr. Var: ŋinc-polee. adj. not fully ripe, of a fruit or other ripening plant. `app `ə ŋinc-polee `duu. ‘This fruit is yet to fully mature.’ vt. 1 • pinch. `bɨɨ ŋom 2 ŋiŋkaa. ‘He pinched me.’ snoring sound; any ŋinnam 98 ŋinnam (1) ŋo 2 • tear, as paper. ŋinnam (1) 1 vi. be ripe, of fruit or grains. dooɲ lo `bəlaa `ə ŋinbaa `duu. ‘Jackfruits ripen rapidly under the sun.’ `ammo `ŋinduu ku. ‘The rice is now ripe.’ door-doogum lo `ŋok `bəlaa `hɨɨn `ə `ŋuree `kunnaa `ɲii. ‘It looks like my jackfruit tree fell over in last night’s storm.’ ŋurnam ŋinnam (2) Var: ɲinnam (2). vi. be extinguished; go out (of a fire). `əmm `ə ŋikkaa ku. ‘The fire’s been extinguished.’ n. grove of tapioca vines; tapioca plantation. iŋin-`ŋinluu ‘tapioca grove’. n. bundle of sticks, twenty by standard, or half of one “`aro”, or five “`ahu”. n. honey made from “taŋik” `ŋinluu `ŋilap ŋillaa `ŋuɲi vt. roll a ball-like or sphere-like object. Generally used to describe the rolling of large objects which cannot otherwise be lifted, such as a boulder or fallen tree. `ɨlɨɨ `əm `ŋurduu. ‘I’m rolling the stone (by pushing it).’ vi. 1 • be lost, particularly of one’s belongings; be forgotten. `yaraa `ə ŋeekaa ku. ‘(I’ve) lost something.’ 2 • pass ŋeenam honeybee. pro. we (dl.); we two. Gram: First person dual pronoun pro. we (pl.); we all. Gram: First person plural pronoun pcl. as well as (something else); away; pass on; die (euphemism). ɲii-ɲiku ɲii `gadd `ə ŋeeŋam kaaku. ‘The wise old folks have all passed on.’ -ŋek `ŋunu ŋur also; in addition to someone else. Gram: Particle indicating that the subject participates in the action indicated by the verb in the same way as, or in addition to, some other person who did so first. May have a reciprocal meaning in some cases. vs:adv. too (much). Gram: Excessive suffix indicating that the subject carries out the action indicated by verb to excess, and/or that the object is excessively affected by the action. adj. overcooked, of rice. ɲaŋŋek baaŋek `kaaken `keŋŋek `jaadu ‘too beautiful’. vt. over-bake; overcook by baking for too long. `ŋoocin ɲii ŋurrə! ‘I am also human (just like you)!’ `cent `ŋurt `kee. ‘Try to know it as he does.’ `əgə doobəə boolo `ɲipak `gə `rɨəm `bə, `ŋunu, `cent ŋur hae. ‘If (our writing) had remained, as the non-tribals now are, we also would have known (how to write).’ `meŋŋek vt. talk too much, especially in a boasting way; overdo one’s speech. no `yaraa `gə `daam `əm maaji `meŋŋek `duu. ‘You talk too much of the price of things.’ ŋennam (2) `ŋurnam vi. fall or topple over, of a tree or bamboo clump, of natural causes, exposing the roots (not by human activity). `hoo `gə vi. be surplus, as of a store or stock of grain; be extra. `ambin `ə `ŋedduu ku. ‘The rice has reached a surplus level.’ ŋo Var: ŋoo. pro. I. Gram: First person singular pronoun, Nominative case 99 `ŋom ŋopii-piilik `ŋom pro. me. Gram: First person singular pronoun, Accusative case doŋoo n. leftovers; leftover food. `ŋokə `ŋopə -ŋo Var: `ŋok. pro. my. Gram: First person singular pronoun, Genitive case Var: `ŋop. pro. to me. Gram: First person singular pronoun, Dative case `hɨm doŋoo `əm, acc `əm, `abɨr `əm, bəaa `laa jito. ‘The leftovers...he’d bring and give to his brothers (i.e., human beings). If he couldn’t eat it (all), right?’ `moŋoo -ŋoohi vt. habitually make numr. five. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier expressions ŋoii `nəŋŋo go ‘five fish’. See: aŋŋo ‘five’. n. fish, in general. See: `məənə ‘fish (P)’. n. fin of a fish. something. vs:adv. during; while; in the process of. Gram: Temporal suffix used to indicate that an action is in progress or currently unfolding. When used in coordination with two sentences, has the effect of indicating that one event happens during or while the other event is in progress. ŋoii ŋoii-alap -ŋoo 1 • habitually; regularly; as a habit. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject performs the action indicated by the verb regularly or as a habit. vs:adv. `caaŋoo `hiduu nana. ‘I’m on my way up right now, you see.’ ŋokii `ŋogə ŋoco n. fish guts; fish innards, whether fresh or cooked. n. mahasheer, a variety of river fish. Neolissochilus hexagonolepis. Var: ŋoso (P). n. Tor tor mahasheer, a variety of river fish. Tor tor. hobb ə `moodii `lo rəŋoo `na, deerɨɨ lo rəmaa `duu. ‘These mithuns are mountain-dwellers, they don’t live in the plains.’ 2 • practice doing something; do something as practice. Gram: Indicates that the subject is participating in the action mentioned by the verb as practice, or in a praticing manner. ŋo Tanii `gə ŋocər Var: ŋosər (P). n. variety of fish. Glyptothorax spp. n. variety of carp. ŋotup ŋonam Garra hobb `əm paŋoo `hidak `ogo iɲɲii to. ‘I left as Tani was practicing killing the mithun.’ gotyla. vi. be dazed; be confused; stare blankly or with a blank or dull expression. ŋo `ŋoduu ku. ‘I’m all dazed/confused.’ n. mori, a variety of Indian carp. Similar to “`orpuu” but larger, up to about hand-size. Labeo dero. 3 • remainder. Gram: Nominalizing suffix deriving a noun representing the remainder of an activity which has already been partially performed. ŋopii taŋoo vt. have the habit of listening to something; be used to hearing something, as a particular language. ŋopii-piilik n. fingerling size of the mori, a variety of river carp. Labeo dero. 100 `ŋopə ŋəənam `ŋopə n. variety of mountain carp. Psilorhynchus spp. n. variety of mountain carp. Psilorhynchus spp. Bagarius bagarius. ŋoruu n. variety of carp, small and `ŋopə-pɨree ŋobə n. Indian mottled eel. Variety of long-bodied eel, high in fat and valued. Said to be able to survive for periods out of water. Anguilla bengalensis. n. variety of fish, white, similar to “ŋoruu”, up to about half-forearm length, found mainly in ponds. longish, living under stones and eating algae. Galo catch frequently and smoke-dry, to serve as a prized snack to be enjoyed while drinking rice liquor. Garra spp. ŋorɨɨ `ŋomuk Var: ŋoyɨɨ (P). n. snow trout. Variety of fish, usually found in river heads. Schizothorax spp. ŋolum ŋomnam vi. inch, as an inchworm; crawl or scoot with part of the body leaving the ground, as a leech or otter. `tapek `ə ŋomin `duee `lakaa! ‘The leech is inching along for heaven’s sake!’ n. fermented fish; rotten fish. n. preparation of fish boiled in bamboo, smashed with a pestle or stick and liquefied. May also be prepared using fermented/rotten fish. ŋɨnam ŋoyaa ŋoyaa-ŋolum n. culinary preparation of fermented fish boiled in bamboo, then smashed and liquefied. See: ŋoyaa ‘fermented fish’; ŋolum ‘boiled, liquefied fish’. n. variety of carp. Garra sp. ŋoyoo `ŋoraa vi. be lazy or lethargic, as when afflicted by a disease; feel that one’s body isn’t performing properly, i.e. with slow reflexes and poor balance, as after drinking liquor. `mɨɨ `ŋɨnam `bə `ŋɨla `duumum `duuku `lakaa, `yoo cinam-ramnam go `kaaduu `kunnaa `dɨɨ? ‘He’s just sitting around like a bump on a log, what on earth could be the matter with him?’ n. minnow of the “tɨŋɨr” fish. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tɨŋɨr ‘fish variety’; Var: `ŋoɨ (P). pro. myself. Gram: First person reflexive pronoun, used in singular, dual and plural functions. nce. variety of mountain carp. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `ŋoraa-pakkaa `ŋɨrpə ‘variety of fish’. tɨŋɨr-`ŋɨrpə ‘tɨŋɨr minnow’. `ŋoraa-`pakkaa Var: `ŋokaa-`pagraa (P). n. variety of mountain carp. Psilorhynchus spp. `ŋəə ŋorik n. variety of catfish, striking and ferocious-looking with green-gray, smooth, lizard-like skin, flat, whitish belly, dorsal fin, catfish-like whiskers, and sharp cartilaginous teeth. `ŋəək agom-aii `əm `cenbəə `tar `kunnaa `bəree? ‘Will (our children) continue to know our language?’ ŋəənam vi. crawl or creep without leaving the ground, as a human baby or a lizard; walk on all fours; move stealthily, as when 101 ŋəmnam tɨɨŋər stalking an animal. `uŋŋaa `ə `koodaa `lo `ŋəəduu. ‘The baby is crawling on the balcony.’ -ŋər ŋəmnam vi. creep or crawl, as an animal without legs or with poorly-functioning legs, as a seal or otter. vs:adv. to excess. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject acts excessively or to excess in the event indicated by the verb. tɨɨŋər hangover, drinking too much. n. from 102 -`caa cakkoo C -`caa upward to a goal; northward to a goal. Gram: vs:adv. - c remaining asleep. dooɲi `caato-`caaɲaa gərk `laa! ‘It’s past wake-up time already (why are you still sleeping?)!’ Directional suffix, indicating (of an intransitive verb) that the subject is directed or moves upward or northward, or (of a transitive verb) that the object is transferred upward or northward, in both cases reaching some goal or new position or state. `caato-dooɲi caadɨr Var: `haato-dooɲi. n. rising sun; risen sun. See: dooɲi ‘sun’. Var: `ootar (P). nce. utter fool. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: peccaa-caadɨr ‘moron’. Var: `haanam (P). vie. move upwards, 1 • ascend; `uucaa `jaacaa `tɨcaa vi. rise, of the sun. vi. swim vertically or upstream. vt. pick up relatively small. `caanam something `pucaa `racaa vt. tug something upward. `pucaa `tokee! ‘Pull it all the way to the top!’ vt. drag something up. vt. pick up something vt. whether vertically or along a sloping incline. `caat `kee!’ ‘Come on up!’ 2 • rise, of the sun. dooɲ ə `caaduu ku. ‘The sun is rising.’ 3 • grow, of a plant; sprout, of a `laacaa `hecaa `caagoo `caaɲaa `caatuu relatively large. pull something upward using one’s hands. Var: `haagoo (P). n:rel. east; plant. `kenloo `gə `am cinnam ə `caadaa `duu. ‘The paddy planted the other day is sprouting quickly/straightaway.’ 4 • move northward. 5 • go to a house; enter or go to a direction of sunrise. Var: `haaɲaa (P). nce. See: `caato-`caaɲaa ‘late morning’. Var: `haatuu (P). n. upward home. ŋo `bɨɨk nam lo `caarə. ‘I’m going to his house.’ `caamak n. fibre-like pith obtained rising slope, as a hill from the perspective of one standing at its base. `caato Var: `haato (P). See: `caato-dooɲi ‘rising nce. by scraping the trunk of a “tamak” tree at the branching point. Prized as an excellent tinder which lights quickly and burns very rapidly, even when fresh. See: `tamak ‘palm variety’. sun’; `caato-`caaɲaa ‘late morning’. Var: `haato-`haaɲaa. n:time. late `cakku `caato-`caaɲaa morning; past the time when anyone should reasonably be Var: `hakku (P). extremely bitter. nce. adj. cakkoo See: aɲɲii-cakkoo ‘tiny amount’. 103 `cagna -ci `cagna ace. grower. Usage: archaic form generally found only compounded to size adjectives. aɲɲii-`cagna small thing. n. small one; the fruits are relatively rarely eaten by Galo. Extremely common in plains area; less commonly found at higher elevations. Dillenia indica. kai-`cagna thing. n. large one; large camrɨɨ `caruk Var: hamyɨɨ (P). hundred. Syn: `alɨɨ. n:num. `cagnam 1 Var: `hagnam (P). vt. jerk upward, as when tossing rice grains from a winnowing basket in one stroke; uppercut, with tool or fist, as when boxing or stabbing someone in the jaw. `occik `ə `cagrə. ‘(I’ll) stab upward with a knife.’ vi. dry out, of a wound; start to heal over, of a wound (as when blood is starting to harden). 1 vs:adv. shift place; shift position. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something shifts location or position as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `pakci `yookee! ‘Don’t -`ci `cagnam 2 Var: `hagnam (P). v:c.arg. flick water (at me)!’ spin cotton into thread by hand. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`tacak” ‘cotton’ -`ci `tacak-`cagnam ‘to spin cotton’. See: `tacak ‘cotton’. 2 Var: -`si (P). vs:adv. reach. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a goal is reached as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `pɨɨc maa. `canam cam- adj. work properly, of a machine or other instrument. `canam maa! ‘It’s not working!’ Var: ham- (P). clfqr. Classifier for groups of ten. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. Usage: Compounded to numeral roots to form higher multiples of ten when counting. camrɨɨ aŋŋo ‘five hundred’. See: acam ‘ten’s place (in counting or multiplication)’. ‘(I) can’t manage to reach (what I’m trying to reach with the tongs).’ `kaac maa. ‘I can’t see (what I’m trying to see; there’s some obstacle or I can’t make it out).’ `ŋiɲc `duu. ‘It’s fully ripe.’ `yooyoo `əm `rɨduu, `ŋun `ceɲci raaku maa. ‘What sort of stuff are you doing, we (old folks) don’t really understand it anymore.’ -`ci 3 vs:val. be or become ill, as a result of some activity (such as eating poisonous food). Gram: `campak n. elephant apple (tree or fruit). Variety of evergreen tree with a massive, chaotic trunk, up to 60’ high and 6’ in diameter, yielding a sour, apple-sized fruit prized by humans and elephants alike. Commonly enjoyed by Mising as a boiled vegetable-cum-flavouring agent, Result derivation indicating that the subject causes the object to become ill as a result of the action indicated by the verb `rɨci -ci vi. allergenic; allergies. Syn: `doci. causing vs:adv. cut in half along length. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb 104 -cik `cinam results in a whole entity being divided into two along the length, as when a bamboo pole is split in two down the middle, or when a pumpkin is halved. `ciŋkam Var: `hiŋkam (P). n. crisped rice; the hard, sticky rice formed at the bottom of the pot when not cooked evenly. -cik Var: -sik (P). vs:adv. disperse. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something disperses as a result of the action indicated by the verb ciŋŋar rice scraps; scraps or bits of rice which have fallen to the floor. n. Var: `hiɲjəp (P). n. pinch, as Var: `hiŋŋar (P). naacɨk pacɨk throw something (such as ashes) such that it disperses. vt. `ciɲjep strike at something with a blade, causing it to jack up and fly away (as e.g. a piece of wood balancing on a ledge). vt. name. son of `Urci, father of of salt, especially when using all five fingertips. `ŋom `ciɲjep `gob `jilaa `kee. ‘Give me up to a five-finger pinch (of salt).’ `cin Cikar Karkoo. -cik...-ik Var: -sik...-yik (P). vs:advsr. fully disperse. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something being dispersed or scattered all over the place tucik pcl. also; even; too; as well. Gram: Additive particle usually following nouns or adverbs. When following a subject or object noun, has the basic sense ‘N also’, ‘N too’ or ‘N as well’ (did some action, in addition to someone else). When marking an adverb or noun which is relatively less expected, has a sense closer to ‘even N’ (in addition to something more expected). ŋoo `cin tuik ‘kick something such that it disperses all over the place’. `is pɨcɨɨ ə `oloo nammə, `iss `ə `ŋom pokcik-pogik `laa `mokaa. ‘The water pot having fallen down, the water scattered and sprayed all over me.’ untraa əbar ə yakku nammə, `mook `hɨgɨ untraa ə pokci-pogik `laa dooku `lakaa. ‘The basket of oranges having spilled, oranges are lying all over the place.’ See: -cik ‘disperse’. inrə. ‘I too will go.’ `hoɲɲo `cin `kanoo `rəm `pɨrsin `kogəm `bə `kogduu. homen `əcin `kanoo `rəm taakuu `menəm `bə `menduu. ‘If a wildcat is hungry, he’ll crow like a jungle fowl. If a tiger is hungry, he’ll speak like a dove.’ (proverb of the wolf in sheep’s clothing). `bulləm `yoocin `memmaa. ‘He didn’t say a thing to them.’ `ceɲcin `lɨɨma! ‘I don’t even want to know!’ `əgəm `kaapaa `cin kumaa, `əi? ‘You don’t so much as see them any more, right?’ `ciŋii n. 1 • pestle, to go with a mortar. Especially, a giant pestle used for husking rice in a large mortar. 2 • planting stick; stick used for `cinam spearing seed-holes in ground when cultivating. the 1 vi. reach or reach out, with a limb extension or pole/long stick held horizontally, as when trying to touch or measure the extent of something. `təm `cici kaato. ‘Try to reach that up there.’ ŋo garii `əm `cikkaa 105 `cinam cilii-ramlii nammə `cici `maa. ‘I tried to reach (out to touch) the car but couldn’t reach it.’ vt. 1 • divine, soothsay or foretell using the method traditionally practiced by Galo shamans in which a chicken egg is used as a divination medium. Usually occurs with associated noun “pɨpə”. In the practice of “pɨp-cinam”, a shaman chants over an egg, which is then believed to transmit a message to the shaman. “pɨp-cinam” may be used to divine the cause of an affliction, under the belief that a spirit has possessed the sufferer and requires a sacrifice of some kind to be appeased and leave the sufferer in peace. For this and other purposes, the shaman will use the egg to determine what kind of sacrifice is required. Other purposes of egg divination include determining what sort of sacrifices should take place at traditional festivals. `ɲibbo `pɨpp `əm `cikaa. ‘The shaman chanted over the egg.’ 2 • possess, a disease. cinam-ramnam `bə `rɨp `hila, aɨɨ `hɨgɨ almaa. ‘Because of always getting sick, my health is no good.’ See: `cinam ‘in pain’; ramnam ‘have fever’. cinnam (1) Var: `punam (P). vt. pluck or pick, as a berry with one’s fingertips. ŋo `ahee `əm `cinduu. ‘I’m picking the berries.’ cinnam (2) 1 Var: hinnam (2) (P). vi. dive, of a longish thing. horam ə `ŋom kaat `laa `hil `bokə `cillɨk kaato. ‘The otter saw me and dove into the pool.’ vt. 1 • throw a spear or spear-like object (as a pencil). `cilloo ‘throw a spear downward’. `cigup ‘throw a spear such that something shatters’. 2 • point, as with a finger. 3 • plant seeds with a planting stick. cibbaa ‘to plant seeds with a planting stick quickly’. 4 • walk in a pointed manner; be of a spirit, particularly an unborn child. hobee ə `ao `əm `cila. ‘The monkey(‘s spirit) entered the child.’ pointed, of footwear. `hiloo-`məroo `gə `ɲijɨr jutaa `gadd `ə `maajib `cittuu doo. ‘Girls’ shoes nowadays are very pointed.’ cinnam (2) cibo 2 Var: hinnam (2) (P). vt. brew “`ɲogrin” (white rice beer). n:poet. brother. Usage: Goŋku. `cinam 3 vt. prepare flatbread from rice powder. `ɨtɨɨ-`cinam ‘to prepare flatbread from rice powder’. cimpɨk cilii cilii Var: himpik (P). n. semi-liquid surface starch formed over cooked rice. `cinam Var: `hinam (P). v:c.arg. be in pain. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`aci” ‘pain’ 3 1 nce. newborn babe. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: yapci-cilii ‘little devil’. 2 Var: hilii (P). See: cilii-ramlii ‘epidemic’. ŋo `ciduu ku. ‘I’m in pain.’ See: `aci ‘pain’. nce. `cinam-ramnam Var: `hinam-ramnam (P). v. have cilii-ramlii Var: hilii-ramlii (P). n. 106 cillii-kookii `cumnam epidemic; virus; viral illness. cunik -cup cillii-kookii shrieking sound; uncontrollable sound. cillii-kookii `əmlaa `moin `duu. ‘He’s going along shrieking and shouting and making a lot of noise.’ expr. Var: `huukaa (P). n. small, nce. variety of beetle. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `eepik-cunik ‘dung beetle’. vs:adv. closed. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something being closed or fastened vt. close a circling pile of `cuukaa karcup `karcup cupcak loosely-woven basket hung from the “`rapko” fireplace shelf, used for storing cooking accessories such as spoons and salt, as well as any other fireplace accessories or small, easily-lost objects. stones. vt. button up, e.g. a shirt. lalɨk `əm `karcup hit `kee! ‘Button up your shirt!’ `cuucak Var: `huusak (P). n. small, densely woven basket with a long strap for carrying seeds at the hip when planting a jhum field with a planting stick. Var: `huusɨr (P). n. nipple, on a male or female breast. n. horned beetle. `cuucɨr cuuɲi cuurii Var: hursak (P). n. laughing thrush. Term used to denote many spp. of laughing thrush (family Muscicapidae), but perhaps prototypically bluewinged laughing thrush. Garrulax squamatus. Var: hubnam (P). vi. chirp `cubnam n. variety of small nectar-eating bird, slightly larger than hummingbird but non-hovering, with a yellow back and some green. n. See: cuurii ‘bird or peep, of a chick or a high-pitched electronic device. `nok goorii ə `cubdak `na `tarɨɨ `ə. ‘Your watch sounds like it’s going off.’ cumnam cuurii-pəkii (variety)’. `cugrii Var: hugrii (P). n. dried fruit of the bottle gourd (calabash), most often used as a ladle dedicated to pouring warmed water over fermented rice when filtering “`opoo”. Lagenaria siceraria. Var: `hugrii-`pumpaa (P). n. gourd. See: `curgrii ‘bottle gourd’; `pumpaa ‘balloon’. vt. 1 Var: humnam (P). jump in place, as to stomp directly downwards on something with both feet and with maximum force, or when dancing a pogo-style dance, as in a “`poopɨr”. `an-ɲaməə `gadd `ə `poopɨr `cumduu ku! ‘The women are all dancing a “`poopɨr” dance!’ 2 cumnam Var: humnam (P). vt. `cugrii-`pumpaa weave. `ej cumnam ‘to weave clothing’. `an-ɲaməə hiloo-məroo maajii `bə `ej `cumlaa ku. ‘Women nowadays are weaving lots of clothing.’ cucu n:mese. meat, in motherese `cumnam 1 • scoop Var: `humnam (P). vt. (baby talk). by hand, generally 107 curum cennam (2) using two hands but also possibly using one, as when transferring rice or other grains, or beads. `ambin `əm `cumt `kee! ‘Scoop the rice!’ 2 • grasp with the claws, as a indicated by the verb `ŋok alak `əm `hɨɨdaa `ə pəəcek kaa. ‘He disabled my (weapon) arm by hitting it with a stick (causing me to drop my weapon).’ hawk or eagle. dookoo ə porok `roo `əm `cumgee baɲɲoo. ‘The hawk grabbed the chicken (in its claws).’ -cek 2 vs:adv. shortened; abbreviated. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is shortened or abbreviated as a result of the action indicated by the verb curum `curgen nce. See: deb-curum ~ `meɲcek bet-curum ‘kingfisher’. Var: hurgen (P). n. variety of ornament, probably made of lead, with a circular base and a handle-like T-bar extending upwards. Up to 10 slashes appear on the T-bar, which are thought to increase its value. vt. summarize something; say something briefly and without going into detail. n. shortcut (path). iɲcek bədaa -`cek `pacek -cen vt. vs:adv. rip result. cut into ripped sections. vs:adv. cornered. Gram: Result suffix to motion verbs indicating that something is moved into a corner as a result of the action indicated by the verb aacen ‘move into a corner’. curnam Var: hurnam (P). v:c.arg. spit. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “tacur” ‘spittle’ tacur curnam ‘to spit’. `culluu-kaguu ceenam n. variety of bird, mountain-dwelling, melancholy call. with a -`cen Var: -`hen (P). vs:adv. knowingly. Gram: Manner suffix Var: heenam (P). vt. split along the length or whittle strips from a length, especially of bamboo, by starting with the knife poised at the edge and splitting inwards. ŋo `dɨrc `əm `ceeduu. ‘I’m splitting the bamboo strips.’ indicating that the subject has knowledge of the action or the object of the action indicated by the verb `docen maa. ‘I don’t recognize what I’m eating.’ `kaacen vt. 1 • understand what one sees. 2 • recognize someone. `ceepor vt. gape; open the mouth `tacen vt. understand what one Var: `hennam (1) (P). unusually wide, as a snake when angry and preparing to strike. `bɨɨ `ceepor `tola `dooduu. ‘He’s lying there gaping (of a snake about to strike).’ hears. `cennam (1) vt. know. `cemmaa ‘unknowingly’. `bə -cek vs:adv. disable. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is disabled as a result of the action 1 `ceŋŋam cennam (2) vt. know everything there is to know. Var: hennam (2) (P). vt. 108 -cem -`cɨɨ chew or grind something brittle and without body, as a crab. ŋo təpp `əm cekkaa. ‘I chewed the corn.’ -cem vs:adv. enjoy; like to do something. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject likes or enjoys to participate in the action indicated by the verb. docem maa. particle indicating that the speaker has no real knowledge of the mentioned information, and is putting it forward as a blind guess. May also include an implication that the speaker doesn’t care very much about the truth or falsity of the Yompaa `yoolo information. ‘I don’t like to eat it.’ `celaa -`coo Var: helaa (P). n. variety of crab. vs:adv. first. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is first among all potential people to participate in the action indicated by the verb, or that the subject performs some action first, before doing something else `tɨɨcoo ‘drink first `com? ‘(Indeed,) where *is* Yompaa (I also have no idea)?’ `əcom. ‘I’m not sure/don’t know (as in answer to a question).’ `əg com `əgə maa `com. ‘It may or may not be the case’. `pɨji `naacom tɨɨkum `duunaa maa `pɨji nammə `com tɨɨkum `duunaa. ‘I can’t tell whether it’s the pourer or the pouree who’s drunk.’ comnam (before doing something else OR before anyone else does)’. coonam 1 vi. expand or extend one’s range, as the branches or roots of a spreading plant. `takuk akcəə koroo `peeləə `bə `coolen `duu. ‘The fig tree is spreading over to the brook.’ Var: homnam (P). vi. stretch the body, as when trying to reach a morsel of food with the mouth, or when peeking around a corner at something. ŋo `ɲijɨr `əm comkaa `laa `kaaduu. ‘I’m stretching to look at the girl.’ vt. reach something by comci compɨk stretching the body for it. Var: cokpɨk; ləkɨɨ (P). n:rel. under; below; beneath; space immediately beneath or below an object. coonam 2 Var: hoonam (P). vt. steal. `bɨɨ `coolaa kumaa `pa. ‘He wasn’t able to steal (my oranges, since I made a good fence).’ `coonam `cokko cognam gallop; run, of a galloping animal. Var: `yoonam. vi. Var: `hokko (P). n. chin. -cɨɨ vs:adv. glowingly; dimly; ineffective. Gram: Manner suffix describing a glowing (red) quality to the action indicated by the verb. Usage: Usually occurs in the split Var: `hognam (P). vt. toss liquid, whether by splashing with hands or using a container. vt. douse; toss liquid onto something. n. jawbone. `cokkap `cogbee `com form “-cɨɨ...-lɨɨ”, with the basic meaning ‘dim’, and, by metaphorical extension, ineffective. ɨrcɨɨ -`cɨɨ vi. glow; burn brightly, of coals. Var: -`sɨɨ (P). vs:adv. keep safely; stow away. Gram: Purpose suffix Var: `som (P). pcl. I guess (that). Gram: Declarative sentence 109 `acɨɨ məcɨɨ-məlɨɨ indicating that the predicated event/state is being carried-out by the subject for the purpose or with the result of keeping, looking after or caring for the object. Also occurs in the split form “-`cɨɨ...-`bək”, with the overall meaning ‘stable’. `cɨɨk `takaa! ‘The water was so cold I was about to freeze to death!’ cɨɨnam ə! ‘Brrr! It’s cold!’ `hiloo `maajib cɨɨnam `duu. ‘It’s really freezing today.’ cɨɨnam `acɨɨ vt. store; keep properly (not leaving lying about). `nok `murkoo `əm `acɨɨ kumaa gər `laa? ‘Why don’t you keep your money properly?’ 1 • slap something 2 vt. using the palm of the hand, as a person’s face or a volleyball. ŋo `abɨr `əm cɨɨkaa. ‘I slapped my younger sibling.’ 2 • clap `kaacɨɨ-`tacɨɨ `kacɨɨ `tɨcɨɨ vt. look after or take care of something or someone. the hands. `yapop-cɨɨnam ‘clap the hands’. cɨɨkaa hinam vt. stow; put something into safekeeping. n. play a sport involving slapping, such as volleyball. boolii-bool cɨɨkaa hinam ‘play volleyball’. vt. swat something by clapping it dead, as when killing a fly. Var: `hippop (P). vi. clap vt. slap someone, as on up and gather together, as when collecting dirty dishes. vt. vt. pick `cɨɨkə `laacɨɨ `cɨɨkoo cɨɨgoo gather, reaping harvest. as when `cɨɨpok `cɨɨpop cɨɨpar the hands. the back. Var: hɨɨpar (P). n. large sized mortar used for pounding rice. Var: `hɨɨko (P). n. lower side Var: hɨɨgoo (P). nce. or section of a village. whole village; whole town; whole world. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: cɨɨgoo-doogoo ‘the world’. Var: hɨɨgoo-doogoo (P). n. -`cɨɨ...-`bək cɨɨgoo-doogoo everyone; everywhere; the world; every area in which there are human beings. vs:advs. stable. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that an object is made stable as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `allɨɨ `bə `racɨɨ `rabək `mogərə. ‘It’s woven nicely (so that it will be stable).’ -cɨɨ...-lɨɨ cɨɨtuu Var: hɨɨtuu (P). n. broken pot. `cɨɨdum cɨɨnam 1 Var: hɨɨdum (P). n. upper side or section of a village. vs:advs. glowingly; dimly. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject has a dim or glowing quality in terms of the action indicated by the verb vi. dim, of a light. Var: hiinam (P). vi. chill, of weather; be very cold. Gram: Does not conjugate regularly; instead of “`cɨɨduu”, “cɨɨnam `duu” is usually said. `iss `ə `maajib `arɨk `laa uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ docɨɨ-dolɨɨ vt. eat less might be expected. than məcɨɨ-məlɨɨ n. dying embers. 110 -cɨk `cɨrnam -cɨk Gram: Result 1 vs:adv. barricade. suffix indicating that a barrier or barricade is created as a result of the action indicated by the verb vi. obstruct one’s vision; vt. move a door or window into a particular state (open or closed). Gram: must occur with a result suffix denoting the state (see below) kaacɨk cɨkkok lie in the path of one’s sight. kuŋkee ə kaacɨk `duu. ‘The stool is obstructing (my) vision.’ Var: hɨkkok (P). vi. be open, of a door or window. vt. open a door or window. cɨktum `torcɨk vt. drape (a cloth) to form a barrier, as to hide behind. vt. shield the eyes Var: hɨktum (P). vi. closed, of a door. ərəpə cɨktum `duu. ‘The door is closed.’ vt. close a door or window. tɨcɨk hinam naacɨk -cɨk from the sun using the palm of the hand, as when squinting. vt. create a barrier by ərəp `əm cɨktum `tokee ‘Could you close the door?’ `cɨr- Var: `hɨr- (P). clfr. Classifier for throwing things (making a pile). 2 vs:adv. 1 • spread. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is spread over something else as a result of the action indicated by the verb. grain-like/grain-sized things, such as uncooked rice kernels, small beans/dal/peas, insects, drops of water, and pebbles. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `cirtə na `hɨgɨm al 2 • splashed on. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is splashed-on as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `yaaduu. ‘Big-sized ones (chick peas) are tastier than these (small grams).’ `ɨlɨɨ `lɨɨci-bəree `cɨrɲi go ‘two pebbles’. See: `acɨr ‘seed’. -cɨr cɨkci Var: hɨksi (P). n. wall of a house, particularly one made from “`ɲoopee” flattened bamboo. vs:advsr. scattered. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something is scattered about as a result of the action indicated by the verb. pokcɨk pogyɨk ‘scatter vs:adv. full; to the top; to the brim. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an object is filled to the top as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `hɨg `pətup `ə bɨɨcɨr `duu. -cɨk...-yɨk ‘This container’s full to the brim.’ cɨrum nce. See: cɨrum-nabbuu ‘green bee-eater (bird)’. n. green bee-eater, a variety of nectar drinking bird. Merops orientalis. See: nabbuu ‘protruding lips’. v. give a silk cloth as a marriage solicitation from a boy’s family to a girl’s family. cɨrum-nabbuu everywhere’. `ocɨk `oyɨk cɨgnam vi. fall and scatter. See: -cɨk ‘spread’. `cɨrgak Var: hɨgnam (P). vi. of a door or window, to be in a particular state (as open or closed). `cɨrnam Var: `hɨrnam (P). vt. 1 1 • drape, as when hanging wet clothes over a line. `ejj `əm `cɨrl 111 cɨrnam -cəə...bəə at `kee. ‘Keep the clothes draped (over the line).’ 2 • fold clothing (not paper). time...’ just; exactly; precisely. `bɨɨk `orok gənamə `nok `cəə. ‘His machete-wearing is just like yours.’ tarɨk `cəəgo jilaa `kaa. ‘Give just the right amount.’ `hɨgɨ `cəəna `ŋok hɨktər ə. ‘This is exactly the point where I stopped tracking (because the trail disappeared).’ `yombə `cəə? ‘Exactly how much?’ n:qual. cɨrnam `cəii -cəə 1 Var: hɨrnam (P). vt. boil water. `iss `lok cɨrt `kee. ‘Heat up some water.’ n. pinkie finger; smallest finger. contrarily; in a separatist manner. Gram: Manner vs:adv. suffix indicating that the subject participates in the event indicated by the verb in a contrarian or separatist-like manner Usage: Also `cəəɲuu occurs in the semi-reduplicated form “-cəə...-rəə”. See: acəə ‘apart’. edge. `mɨɨ tebul `cəəɲuu `a `dagduu. ‘He’s standing on the edge of the table.’ n:rel. n. thumb finger. Syn: `cəənə, Var: həənam (P). vi. boast. vi. boast about oneself. cəədaa cəənam cəəsi cəəgə -cəə Var: -səə (P). vs:adv. exclusively. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the predicated event/state alone or to the exclusion of others. 2 `lagnə. cəə- Var: həə- (P). clfr. Classifier for fingers or for bodies made up of fingers or offshoots, as some types of plant tuber. Gram: Root vt. boast about something. `bɨɨ `murkoo `əm cəəg `duu. ‘He’s boasting about (his) money.’ form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. takee acəə cəum go ‘three ginger rhizomes’. See: acəə `cəənə cəəyɨr n. thumb finger. Syn: `lagnə, `cəədaa. Var: həəyɨr (P). n. ring finger. ‘offshoot’; lakcəə ‘finger’. -cəə...-rəə -`cəə vs:adv. just; exactly; precisely. Gram: Suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is just, exactly or precisely right, as hoped, or as intended. `allom taək vs:advsr. contrarily. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in a contrarian manner in bringing about the action indicated by the verb `meɲcəə kabboolo tarɨk `cəə hae `na. ‘If we then make the roof tomorrow it will have been right on.’ `hɨgɨ tarɨk `cəə `nago. ‘This one’s just the right kind.’ `hək `cəə `nago lagi bee. ‘I wanted one exactly like this.’ menrəə `laa ‘be contrarian; say just the opposite of whatever someone else may say’. See: -cəə ‘contrarily’. -cəə...bəə vs:advsr. tangled. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating a tangled manner to the subject in terms of the action indicated by the verb. `rɨcəə `rɨbəə ‘of a tree, to `cəə n:time. moment; time; point in time. `og `cəə `ogo...‘At that have many twisting and tangling branches, unlike other trees’. 112 -cək `cəbnam -cək vs:adv. splintered. Gram: Result 1 suffix indicating that something is splintered as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vs:adv. boldly. Gram: Manner 2 suffix indicating that the subject acts boldly or without regard for consequences. vi. bold; disregarding of consequences. məəcək `laa `meɲyoo `kee! ‘Don’t just speak freely/without consideration!’ n. weapon wielded by the flapping’’. cənam 3 Var: heenam (P). vt. weave -cək or knit a wall from “ɲoopee” flattened bamboo; wall or wall off an area. ŋo cɨkc `əm `cəduu. ‘I’m weaving the wall.’ `cənam məəcək Var: `hənam (P). vt. 1 • curse by taking the name of a god or spirit; put a curse on someone, as ‘may the spirits cause a snake to bite you!’ 2 • beseech or implore a spirit or `cəko demon spirit “`Diimii”, which is stored under his arm. `cəkoo Var: `həkoo (P). n. cranny; corner; nook; hidden-away place. See: cərəə ‘corner’. god; supplicate to or lament to a spirit or god, generally concerning some aspect of one’s misfortune, possibly with fury and desperation. `cənam-beenam Var: `hənam-beenam (P). v. prayer; incantation; chant; curse; supplication. See: `cənam ‘curse to spirits’; beenam ‘invoke spirits’. cəgnam vt. bind 1 Var: həgnam (P). or fix a “`galəə” fabric on the body to wear as a skirt. ŋo galəə `əm cəkkaa. ‘I bound the sarong.’ bəcək cəktər ‘the top point (on the waist) reached by a skirt’. 2 vt. break off a piece from a whole, as with one’s teeth or fingers. -`cəp cəgnam cənam Var: -`səp (P). vs:adv. pinched; wedged. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is pinched or wedged between two objects or surfaces as a result of the action indicated by the verb. adj. wedged between two argue; fight vocally. `buɲɲə `aci `bə cəmii hioo. ‘The two of them really fought it out.’ `mɨɨ `ŋom cəgaa-cəyaa `mola. ‘He really cursed me out.’ 1 vi. `hɨɨcəp objects, as when storing a paper or packet between the wall and crossbeams of a Galo house. cənam 2 vi. 1 • strike a pose; take up cəpaa positions, as when preparing to strike in a fight or battle. bot cəmii hinam ‘of bulls, to take up positions in a contest’. 2 • of an eagle or bird with Var: paatuu (P). n. relatively large or voluminous woven back-piece, especially as worn by Minyong people. See: `raacəə ‘bamboo back-piece’. `cəpen similar abilities, hover and station over the ground for a period by flapping the wings. See: rəlii-cənam ‘’hover by Var: `hɨkpen (P). vt. partition, as a space by laying a wall across it. See: cənam ‘lay wall’; -`pen ‘separate result’. Var: `həbnam (P). vt. `cəbnam 113 cəmpə cələə-cəhak 1 • pinch or press between slabs, one another.’ as a crab’s claws, or between the toes. Generally not used to describe pinching between fingers. `tacc `ə `ŋom `cəbduu. ‘The crab is pinching me.’ 2 • economize; pinch pennies. ŋo `cərnə cərbo cərluu `cərlee cəlam cələə Var: `hərnə (P). n. doe; female Var: hərbo (P). n. buck; male n. herd of deer. Syn: cərtɨɨ. Var: `hərlee (P). n. wild deer. deer. deer. `murkoo `əm `cəbduu. ‘I’m stretching my budget/pinching pennies.’ adj. wild, of a deer. Var: həlam (P). n. side of an object with sides, as the two sides of a wall. Syn: kalam. Var: hələə (P). nce. side. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: cələə-cəhak ‘both sides’. Var: hələə-`gona (P). n. Var: hələə-asak (P). n. cəmpə nce. See: yacəm-cəmpə ‘dwarf chameleon fish’. `cəmsap cərəə cərtɨɨ n. gill(s) of a fish. Var: hərəə (P). n. corner. Var: hərtɨɨ (P). n. herd of deer. Syn: cərluu. Var: hərnam (P). vt. bump `cərnam cələə-`gona cələə-cəhak against or push something using one’s body rather than arms or legs. ŋo aci `ne `cərkaa. ‘I bumped up against elder brother.’ `cərkaa `hiduu. ‘(They’re) bumping up against opposite side; opposite direction. both sides, of a sided object such as a wall. 114 -`jaa `jaanam J -`jaa really; quite; considerably; resolutely; indeed; Gram: Elative (too) much. intensifying suffix `ago `jaarə `pə! ‘It will probably be too hot.’ `doken `jaamaa. ‘It’s not so very tasty.’ `bɨɨk `ləgaa `jaabə `caakaa jirə. ‘I’ll go up entirely for his sake.’ `iss `ə kai `jaa `rəm, kocəə-korəə `kuduu `bə `rɨrə `pə. ‘When the water’s quite high...you might be able to fish around in the corners.’ 1 - j ‘actual (one)’ or ‘true (one)’. `nok adjs:der. dooluu `jaa `ə `yoo `ə `laa? ‘What is your exact (true) village (of origin)?’ `ŋunuk `duuko `jaa `ə Baahar `tə `maabə. ‘Our real place is Baasar up there, isn’t it.’ pcl. 1 • please. Gram: Request particle following a noun phrase with the basic sense ‘I would very much like to have x’ or ‘x please’. Can also be used in a wishful sense ‘I wish I could have x (knowing well that I can’t)’. ɨr go `jaa! ‘Oh, for a -`jaa bow (to shoot that bird)!’ 2 • much; so much as (that). Gram: Particle usually following the adverb “`əmbə” ‘like that’, with the overall meaning ‘so much as that’ or ‘to the extent of that’. Usually used in the negative, with the overall meaning. ‘not so much/often as that’ or ‘not to that extent’. May or may not be followed by “`bə”. `mər-`kenluu vs:adv. destroyed. suffix indicating that destroyed as a result indicated by the verb 2 Gram: Result something is of the action Usage: Often occurs in the semi-reduplicated from “-`jaa...-`yaa”, with the overall meaning ‘decrepit’ or ‘utterly destroyed and useless’. `mojaa -`jaa vt. destroy something. vs:adv. fall into water. Gram: 3 Result suffix indicating that the predicated event/state results in something falling into water. -jaa vs:adv. really; actually; in fact. Gram: Manner suffix inficating that the predicated event/state is ‘really’, ‘in fact’ or ‘actually’ the case, perhaps contrary to expectations. `əmbə `jaa `is-rɨk `rɨmaa to. ‘In the old days, we didn’t cultivate wet fields much.’ `ŋoocin `əmb `jaabə `kanoo daamaa. ‘I too am not all that hungry.’ `tolo `jaamaa, `bolo `jaamaa. ‘Not so far up there, not so far down there.’ 3 • truly. Gram: Particle occurring clause-finally, roughly with the sense ‘really’, ‘truly’ or ‘in fact’. “ŋo `hɨgɨ al `jaaduu. ‘This is actually good (I expected it would be bad).’ aajaa nammə...‘Having in fact come...’ `bɨɨ doj `jaamaa; `ikii `əm jit `kukee. ‘He’s not actually full; give him the dog (meat; that will satisfy him).’ `hoojɨɨ `ə `jaakə.” “I’m actually a chameleon.” `jaakɨr jaajin n. variety of flowering plant. n. fuchsia. fuchsia spp. `jaa n:qual. real. Gram: Qualifying noun following another noun and giving the basic sense ‘real (one)’, `jaanam vie. Usage: Used to swim; float. describe the 115 jaanam jamtak swimming of human beings or other animals, not fish. ŋo `is `lo `jaakaa. ‘I swam in the water.’ nest.’ 3 • emote; jaanam vi. glide; float. `hɨɨn ann ə `kaaken `bə `jaaloo `dagna. ‘The leaves are floating down beautifully.’ n. `jaayoo plant. variety of flowering vs:advs. express emotional energy; dance about; preen and fawn over someone, as in praise and happiness upon receiving a gift. pipi maaji `jaduu. ‘Pipi really jumped for joy/was very happy (upon receiving the gift).’ 4 • style; be stylish; wear stylish -`jaa...-`yaa ruined; destroyed; decrepit. `naahuu `əm `tujaa `tuyaa kaa. ‘I kicked the granary into oblivion.’ `namjaa `namyaa `dak ‘old and decrepit, of a house’. 1 clothes and do oneself up stylishly. `bɨɨ maaji `jaduu. ‘He’s really styling it up.’ `jarɨk `jaji vt. fawn over someone upon meeting them. vt. express one’s emotions, jagnam vi. 1 • erode or become eroded, of land/soil. 2 • detach, of a body of land from as when sympathy. trying to elicit `janam-`gamnam v. 1 • carouse; a whole, as during a landslide; of a large piece of land, separate from the whole. `iss `ə `tənam `ə, kodee ə `jagduu ku. ‘The soil is eroded from the flooding.’ vt. dig at a surface; remove soil play joyfully; dance about in happiness, satisfaction and joy. `jatə-`gamtə `kee! ‘Play joyfully!’ 2 • be fashionable; be See: `janam ‘dance stylish. about’; `gamnam ‘play’. with a tool, especially from the surface of an area. Syn: `dunam. -`jap jagnam 2 vi. be stillborn, of a baby. `hɨɲɨɨ `gə `aɲɨɨ `tolo `ao `jagna `təttə. ‘This year’s births are all failures up there.’ See: bəəjak ‘give birth to weak/stillborn child’. vs:adv. flattened. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is flattened as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. flatten underfoot. n. male duck. vte. talk. `tujap `jappo jabnam or crush `janam vi. 1 • of a school of fish, emerge and group near the shallows of a river. arum `əm, ŋoii `gadd `ə `lɨɨn `dook `hogo `jalen `duu. ‘The fish gather here by the boulder in the evening.’ 2 • of animal younglings, be led ŋo `bɨəm `ne agom `əm japkaa. ‘I talked to him about a few things.’ jabben `yookaa! ‘(You should) stop talking!’ n. female duck. n. breeding duck; duck used n. shoe. Usage: (NW). `jabnə `jablii jamtak out of the nest by the mother. ərək `ann `ə `ao `gadd `əm `jalen `duuku. ‘The mother pig is leading (its) children out of the to establish a breeding line. 116 jamnam -jik...-mik jamnam -`jar chew or bite into something soft, as rice, or with body, as meat. vt. `jiimi -jik soil; firmament, from which Abo Tanii (the first human) was created. n. vs:adv. joyously. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is acting joyously, as though very pleased to see someone, or in a flirting and flitting manner vi. flirt, by way of one’s vs:adv. melt. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an object melts as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `meɲjar words. -`jik `rɨjar jarnam vi. flirt, by way of one’s actions. vs:adv. haphazardly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in a haphazard or careless way. Often occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-`jik...-`mik”. vs:adv. disturbed; impeded. Gram: Result suffix to an intransitive verb, indicating that the subject (of an intransitive verb) or object (of a transitive verb) is ‘disturbed’ or ‘impeded’ by something in the course of an action. Often occurs in split forms “-jik...-ak” or “-jik...-mik” vi. fly, as a bird or plane; flap wings. Usage: in Pugo, sense is of something flying due to an exterior force rather than under its own power. pətaə jarduu. ‘The bird is flying.’ vs:val. Benefactive suffix. Gram: Verb suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is done for someone, for the benefit of someone, or affecting someone in some indirect way (whether to that person’s benefit or detriment). Acts as an applicative, adding a noun to the sentence which may be marked in the Dative or (more often) in the Accusative, according to the verb type as well as the subdialect or speech habits of the speaker. `opoo -jik -ji ŋo `hibuu `əm iɲjik kaa. ‘I muddied up the river by walking through it.’ -jik...-ak vs:advs. stuck; impeded. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that the subject becomes disturbed or impeded, or gets stuck as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `lok neɲji kaato. ‘Brew him some rice beer.’ `nunnəm ŋo `dooyɨɨ go ɨɨji rə `dei. ‘I’ll tell y’all a story, hey.’ porok rogjɨr `əm `ŋaŋkə jikaa ku. ‘(Abo Tani’s) hen was also bitten to death.’ iɲjik inak ‘get stuck on something while walking; get impeded or disturbed by obstacles lying in one’s path’. See: -jik ‘impeded’; agnam ‘hook’. -`jik...-`mik vs:advsr. leisurely. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb in a leisurely or carefree manner vt. eat for fun, as when there’s nothing else to do. -jii adj:mono. small. Usage: (P). rɨɨjii ‘grown small, of bamboo (e.g.)’. See: -yaa ‘small (L)’. `dojik `domik `iɲjik `immik -jik...-mik Jiikee `jiitə Jiikee, name of a variety of very powerful spirit. name. n:poet. sun. Usage: Goŋku. vi. roam around. See: -`jik ‘haphazardly’. vs:advsr. disturb. Gram: 117 `jiccii Jimee Split result suffix indicating that the subject is disturbed or impeded as a result of the action indicated by the verb. See: -jik ‘impeded’. jisa something which one needs to give to someone. n. `jinnam (1) `jiccii `jijjaa adj. muddy. n. truth. `jijjaa `əm ŋo `hɨrum `cenkaa ku. ‘I just found out the truth tonight.’ tiptoe; walk 1 vi. silently and carefully, trying not to make any noise. `jinla `intok, horr ə `tapaa `deela! ‘Go on tiptoes or the boar might hear you!’ sneak about; sneak around; be stealthy in one’s movements. vi. 2 adj. really; in truth or in reality. `jinnam-`runam `jinnam (1) jinnam (2) -jin vs:adv. swollen. Gram: Manner suffix with the basic sense ‘swollen’; can also be used metaphorically, as to indicate someone’s opinions about themselves. vi. selfish. vt. blow out the stomach. vi. stretch; be elastic. məəjin hagjin -`jin vi. melt, as plastic in the hot sun. Gram: Not generally used to describe the melting of ice or snow, although it may be extended by some speakers. au ə `jidduu ku. vs:adv. straightened; stretched out. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is straightened or stretched out as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Often occurs in the split form “-`jin...-`taa”, with the overall meaning ‘straightened’ or ‘flattened’, as a crumpled sheet of paper. mojin `tokee! ‘Straighten ‘The (pig) fat is starting to melt down.’ -`jin...-`taa vs:advs. stretch out; flatten. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something is fully stretched-out or flattened as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as when spreading out a sheet of paper it out!’ tujin ləjin `tokee! ‘Stretch out your legs!’ `hagjin `tajin jinam vt. suck in one’s belly. vt. strain to hear; listen carefully, as for an animal when hunting or a thief. `tujin-`tutaa `tokee! ‘Straighten out your leg by kicking it outward!’ `mojin-`motaa `tokee! ‘Flatten it out!’ See: -`jin ‘straightened’; `taanam ‘spread out’. `jimii n. 1 • void, emptiness from vte. give. `əgəm jikaa to. ‘Let me have that.’ `əgəm ŋo `nom jimaa rə. ‘I won’t give that to you.’ n. gift; something which n. sent thing; something which the Earth was created. Generated by the third entity “Maaji” and, in turn, progenitor of “`Miihin”. 2 • silence. 3 • loneliness. adj. 1 • silent. 2 • lonely. `jimii `bə əmboolo...‘If I feel lonely...’ jinam `jilɨk was given. that has been sent. ŋoklo nok jilɨk go dooduu. ‘I have something that’s been sent to you.’ Jimee name. name of a Lare Galo 118 `ju -jum village in central West Siang district. jugnam Var: dugnam (P). vi. 1 • run. `bɨɨ jugbaa `bə jugmaa `ju pcl. let’s. Gram: Inclusive particle or suffix on verbs, indicating a suggestion on the speaker’s part that the speaker and the listener should do something together Usage: Often `duu. ‘He isn’t running quickly.’ 2 • have diarrhoea; have loose motion. See: akii-jugnam. vt. used together with Self-directed imperative suffix “-`laa”. `əmbə `ju. ‘Let’s (do it) like that.’ `kaju, `inlaa `ju. ‘Come on, let’s go!’ acin `dolaa `jukee. ‘Let’s eat, shall we?’ `ŋun `hok `kuju. ‘Let’s (get off) here.’ ride, as motorcycle. a bicycle or a jugnam-pognam n. hurry about; rush around; busy oneself with various tasks. See: jugnam ‘run’; pognam ‘hop’. -`jup `juujaa vi. be wet. adum ə `juujaa `duuku. ‘My hair has gotten wet.’ vs:adv. closed; settled. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something closes (as a mouth) or is settled (as an account) as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `juujaa-rəyaa uncomfortably damp, wet, or soaked, as a mildewy room or an uncomfortably swampy jungle. adj. vi. be wet. See: `juujaa nappaa `gomjup toku ‘Close your mouth!’ `kee! `meɲjup `juunam ‘wet’. vt. settle; agree; arrive at a decision. agom `əm `meɲjup `kaa. ‘They agreed on the point (of dispute).’ vt. wet or wetten something; `jubnam make something wet. `iss `ə `ŋom `juuduu. ‘The water is making me wet.’ `juumak jugɨr n. tripwire of a spring action small animal trap. n. spring action of a small vt. 1 • work or function properly; be in a well-ordered and functional state. `ŋok gaarii ə `jupku maa. ‘My car isn’t functioning properly anymore.’ `jubna go! ‘What a corker (spoken in irony)!’ 2 • be resolved or in a state of animal trap, generally a length of thin, resilient wood fixed into the ground at one end and bent to maximum tension to provide a spring action to the trap noose when a fixed line is tripped. resolution, as a point of dispute. `nunuk agom ə `jupkaa `ree `jubmaa `ree? ‘Was your point (of dispute) agreed on or not?’ 3 • fit; suit, of clothing to the `juggəə `jugnam n. treadmill. v:c.arg. perform a war dance. Gram: Generally occurs with ‘war associated noun “`pajuk” dance’ `pajuk-`jugnam wearer or partners in a relationship. `nom `Adii boolup ə `maajib `jubduu. ‘On you Adi hats look really good.’ `jupsi maa. ‘(They) don’t suit one another (as a couple).’ ‘to perform a war dance’. -jum vs:adv. release water. Gram: Result suffix indicating that water is 119 `jurnam `jeci-`kooree gradually released from something as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as when wringing out wet clothing. See: ejjum ‘wring out small ones come off. vs:nzr. section. Gram: Nominalizer deriving a noun meaning something resulting from an action of ripping, tearing or otherwise dividing. clothing’. `jurnam vt. of a priest, perform and follow all the rules and formalities of a ceremony. Usage: Cannot be applied to laymen. gajek n. strip of ripped-off clothing. `ej gajek go ‘a section of clothing resulting from ripping’. `jein `jee n. rag; old, discarded clothing. `jein `bə `rɨduu ku. ‘It’s becoming a rag (of clothing).’ n. green-yellow-blue. peejek hɨrjek jek- n. section resulting from slicing something. n. scraps resulting from the action of stripping bark. adj. blue; green; yellow. See: `yajee ‘blue; green; yellow’. -jee vs:adv. messy. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the predicated event/state results in a mess being made. clfqr. Classifier for slices, as of meat. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. adin `jegɲi go ‘two slices of meat’. See: ajek ‘a little bit; one slice’. jee pcl. that’s why; because of that. Gram: Particle marking a preceding declarative sentence as a ‘reason why’ something else happened. Usage: May be restricted to `jeku n. old clothing; second-hand clothing; hand-me-down. -`jek...-paa foothills Lare. Unlike in Assamese, does not have a complementizing function in Galo. Source: Assamese. `bɨɨ al maa `jee. ‘He’s not a good sort, that’s why (I didn’t invite him).’ `bɨɨk `ajen `gadd `ə `ɲipak `təttə ku `jee. ‘(His friends are) all non-tribals, that’s why (he keeps inserting Assamese words).’ vs:advs. expertly. Gram: Split suffix indicating that someone brings about an event expertly Usage: Usually occurs in the negative to indicate a lack of expertise in doing some activity. See: `ajek-apaa ‘valuable’. `jegaa n. clothesline; clothes-hanging pole, usually made from bamboo, used for draping or hanging clothing over. -jek vs:adv. into chunks. Gram: Result suffix usually found on cutting verbs indicating that the action indicated by the verb is carelessly brought about and/or results in a residue of large chunks (which may be unwanted). vt. whittle carelessly such that large pieces rather than `jeci Var: `jəsə (P). nce. variety of clothing. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `jeci-`kooree ‘festival clothing’. Var: `jəsə-`kooree (P). n. type of skirt made for festivals; traditionally, mostly white, but `jeci-`kooree gajek 120 `jecek jognam nowadays possibly coloured. See: `jeci ‘variety of clothing’. `jeraa `jelɨɨ Var: jeyaa (P). n. variety of `jecek jeɲjen -`jen Var: jesək (P). n. fragment of nce. See: `roo-jeɲjen Gram: roots basic x’ or clothing made of thread spun from silkworm cocoons. n. red clothing. cloth. ‘tonsils’. vs:nzr. partner; -mate. Nominalizing suffix to verb forming a noun with the meaning ‘partner in doing ‘x-mate’. n. drinking drinking partner. -joo someone. `tɨɨjen buddy; vs:adv. (in order to) please Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the predicated event/state is brought about in order to please someone. Most often, the ‘pleased’ person will be an elder or respected person; not generally used in a ‘placate’ sense, i.e. elder-to-younger or human-to-animal. `jennam (1) v:c.arg. be friends. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`ajen” ‘friend’ jooko `jengap `hiduu ku. ‘They’re becoming friends.’ See: `ajen ‘friend’. n. variety of edible plant, enjoyed as a vegetable. Thought to be related to “`raarə”. See: `raarə ‘plant (variety)’. vt. lift something; heft something. `joen `tokee! ‘Lift it up!’ `joonam joonam jennam (2) vt. prune; cut with much force and little aim, as when clearing brush from an area of ground. `ərtak go bəət `laa `nəmɨɨ `əm `jettok. ‘Go get a bamboo blade and clear the ground cover.’ vi. rip; tear; be ripped or torn. `ŋok lalɨk ə `jekkaa ku. ‘My shirt has gotten torn/been ripped up.’ vt. rip; tear. ŋo `him `jerrə. ‘I will `jennam (2) vt. pay someone for work, in cash or kind; reimburse or repay. `ŋok `is rəkk `əm `ɲipak `əkə `aɲi go `joolɨk toba, `am `ləd `bə. ‘I hired two non-hill-tribals to plant my paddy fields.’ vs:adv. sloppily. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts sloppily in bringing about the event mentioned by the verb. Often occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-`jok...-`yok”. vs:advsr. messily; sloppily. Gram: Split manner suffix -`jok tear this.’ `jettuu `jepee `jepə `jebo vt. rip something in two; tear into two pieces. -`jok...`yok n. coat; thick woven tunic, for winter use. n. tunic; shirt. n. variety of apron-like tunic indicating that the subject brings about the event mentioned by the verb messily, sloppily, or in a haphazard way `ejjok `eyyok `laa worn over the head, open at the sides and descending to about knee-length. `eddak `kom al rə. ‘It will be fine to write it messily/sloppily.’ See: `-jok ‘sloppily’. jognam Syn: `koik.vt. flatter 121 `joŋkaa `jɨgnə someone; boost someone’s position or spirits. `ŋom jogyoo `kee! ‘Don’t flatter me!’ `əmum jognam `əm `talɨɨ maa. ‘I don’t want to listen to your flattery.’ See: `meɲjok ‘praise’. jɨɨjɨɨ ace. See: jɨɨjɨɨ-rəyaa ‘damp’. jɨɨjɨɨ-rəyaa adj. damp, as of a room. jɨɨjɨɨ-rəyaa `empaa. ‘I feel stuffy (because this room is damp and mouldy).’ name. name of a variety of powerful spirit. nce. See: `jɨɨtə-`taatə `joŋkaa `joŋkii Var: `jomkaa (P). n. wok; `Jɨɨɲak `jɨɨtə deep-dish Syn: mookaa. frying pan. ‘sun n. seat; chair or stool. n. seat; chair or (poetic)’. `joŋkii-muraa `jotɨɨ `jɨɨtə-`taatə stool. See: `joŋkii ‘seat’; muraa ‘chair’. n. grove or stand of Bambusa tulda, the variety of bamboo most commonly used by Galo. Var: `yobnam. vi. jump, n. sun, in a poetic or ceremonial sense. `jɨɨt-taat `gə `pɨɨcaa `dagəm...‘on the ascent of the glowing orb (i.e. at sunrise)...’ 1 jɨɨnam jɨɨgə vi. be plump; be fat; be healthy. vt. fatten; cause to become fat. ərək adin ə jɨɨgə `duu. ‘Pork makes you fat.’ `jobnam either vertically (high) or horizontally (long), but not over something. jɨɨnam -jɨɨ vs:adv. fattened. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is fattened as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vs:adv. appreciably; to an appreciable degree, with gusto or aplomb. Gram: Manner suffix vi. sink, as a drowning 2 person. Gram: Generally occurs with vi. sink into water; sink into liquid. `ɨlɨɨ `ə `jɨɨlɨk kaa. ‘The stone sank.’ following Result suffix. `jɨɨlɨk jɨɨnam -`jɨɨ indicating that the subject acts in a manner fulfilling of the action indicated by the verb, in an earnest or truthful manner or with relish and gusto. `dojɨɨ `bə dot `kee. Eat v:c.arg. become an old man. 3 Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “ɲɨjɨɨ” ‘old man’ See: ɲɨjɨɨ ‘old man’. adj. tender, as a young leaf. adj:expr. `jɨɨr with gusto and satisfaction (as though you were a rich person with plenty of tasty things to eat). `jɨɨr-`joor `Jɨɨhi tender; immature, as the buds on a plant or an infant. See: `jɨɨr ‘tender’. `meɲjɨɨ vt. tell the truth; speak truthfully. agom `əm `meɲjɨɨ maa. ‘He doesn’t speak the truth.’ name. name of a variety of powerful spirit. jɨgnam `jɨɨcam Var: `jɨɨsam (P). adj. thick, of e.g. cloth, as well as soup. `jɨɨcam `na pətəə ‘big container’. See: bocor ‘thin (cloth)’. vi. adept, in mystical matters and/or priestly duties. `ɲibbo `cin `jɨgmum `maaduu. ‘Shamans don’t just automatically become adept.’ n. buffalo cow. `jɨgnə 122 `jɨglee jəyɨɨ `jɨglee Jɨgloo -`jɨr n. wild buffalo. name. name of a variety of spirit. vs:adv. into small pieces. Gram: Result suffix indicating that small pieces are the result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. whittle into very small the action indicated by the verb results in something being dispersed, scattered, or spread about. no acin `ceejɨr `gajɨr jɨrɨɨ `əm dojəə `duu. ‘(By your eating), you’re making food fall all over the place.’ hɨgyaa `əm gəjəə `duu. ‘You’ve spread your cold all over (among the villagers).’ pieces. vt. pare into small pieces, as matchsticks from a length of twig. `pagjəə jəənam 1 vt. flick fingers to shake off excess water or food. vi. 1 • shout. `ŋom jəərɨk n. auxiliary workspace in a field; area near a field rest house (“`naakum”) where harvest is gathered and any other auxiliary tasks are performed. Has traditional significance as area where animal sacrifices take place. n. skirts of a clearing; area of `yookee! ‘Don’t yell your answer back at me!’ 2 • blabber; run at the mouth; talk too much and too loudly. jəənam `jəkək adj. limp. Tamik `jəələə 2 vi. `induee `kulaa `kaa. ‘Tamik was limping away for some reason.’ n. hiccup. `jɨrji jɨrjoo `jɨrtə transition underbrush between village clearing and jungle. nce. n. See: apoo-jɨrjoo hiccupping. ŋo `jəkək `duuku `laka. ‘I’m hiccupping for goodness sake.’ n. ceremonial preparations; initial stages of “`ui-`mennam”. vi. vigorous; healthy; vital; `jəgər ‘blackbreasted sunbird’. young marriageable but woman. woman; not aged jənam Jɨrdoo name. name of a Galo clan found in Jwrdoo village, as well as in Sili village in Likabali circle, as well as elsewhere. n. virgin; young, unwedded female. See: `ɲijɨr ‘girl’. nce. See: `tajɨr-`jɨrlək rich with vitality, as a plant which has passed the stage of sprouting and is growing with full vigour. `ammo jərəp `duuku. ‘The paddy is starting to enter its full growing stage.’ `jɨrlee jəmar nce. See: jəmər-jəmar ‘dusk’. n:time. jəmɨr-jəmar `jɨrlək Jɨhɨɨ -jəə ‘feathered bamboo’. name. name of a village in dusk. Usage: usu. occurs compounded with “kanə” ‘dark(ness)’. kanə-jəmɨr-jəmar ‘dusk’. nce. See: jəmər-jəmar ‘dusk’. jəmər jəyɨɨ central West Siang district. vs:adv. dispersed; scattered. Gram: Result suffix indicating that n. variety of cane, very long, used in weaving baskets and sheaths. Not very long-lasting, 123 jərnam -jər...-mər growing mainly in foothills and plains; cultivated. -jər...-mər jərnam vi. spin on an axis, as a top; rotate or be rotating. `əmbə `rɨdak `kom, `nokkəm `jəryaa rə. ‘All the same, (my top) will spin longer than yours.’ vt. rotate, spin or twist an object vs:advsr. jerkingly. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject jerks about in bringing about or experiencing the action indicated by the verb porok ə tujər on its medial axis. tumər `duu. ‘The chicken is kicking out its legs (in its final death throes).’ See: jərnam ‘spin; rotate’. 124 -`ɲaa `ɲanam X -`ɲaa vs:adv. as a group; as a set. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that a plural subject is acting as a group of `maɲaa `duuku, individuals. - x apparently onomatopoeic with its chirp. Possibly a cicada, or a variety of similar insect. `naruu `ə! ‘They’re all searching for them, everyone!’ `iji, maaji `bə `rəken `bə `rəɲaa `duuku. ‘Nowadays, life has become very comfortable for everyone.’ `bulu `məəken `laa attɨr ə `doɲaa kaaku. ‘They happily ate together as a group.’ `bull `ə imbam `hiɲaa to. ‘They went together as a group.’ bos `ɲaapom `yookaa! ‘Don’t be afraid (to a group)!’ `bull `ə insi `ɲaato. ‘They went in a group by themselves.’ `ɲaanam vt. pierce, stab, or penetrate something with a pointed object with an underhand motion. ŋo `bɨəm `mətuu `ə `ɲaakaa. ‘I stabbed him with a burning log.’ n. variety of ornament, aligned in type with “təkom”. ɲaarə `ɲagnam vi. 1 • pliable; flexible. jugɨr `hɨgɨ `ɲaŋŋek `jaadak! ‘This spring trap is too weak/loose!’ 2 • of ɲaaŋii-ɲaaree ‘dragonfly’. n. dragonfly. Usage: (P). See: `aakii-taaɲii-`taaree Var: abai (P). n:kin. paternal uncle. Usage: used to rice, to be soft, fully cooked, or ready to eat. acin ə `ɲagduu ku. ‘The rice is soft (fully cooked).’ `ɲagŋek `ɲaŋkoo vi. overcooked; of rice, `ɲaaɲaa cooked too long until it is soft and inedible. fourth daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address the fourth wife married into the family (generally, the wife of one’s fourth son in birth order). n:kin. n. betrothed woman; taken woman; woman who has agreed to be married, but who has not been married yet. refer to or address any of one’s father’s brother’s, whether elder or younger. For some speakers, may alternate in this usage with “abo”. ɲaaɲam nce. See: ɲaaɲam-acin ‘bridal rice’. ɲaŋgoo ɲaaɲam-acin Var: ɲaaɲum-acin; ɲaaɲam-asin (P). n. bridal rice; ceremonial rice received by a bride when en route from her birth village to her husband’s village, her new home. See: acin ‘cooked rice’. n. ɲaŋgoo-rennam `ɲanam n. steal, take away or sleep with another man’s wife. vi. 1 • wither. ɲaaɲi variety of colourful chirping insect, whose name is 2 • break down; become decrepit; fall apart of itself, of an object, 125 -ɲap `ɲarnam presumably of old age. namm ə `ɲakaa ku. ‘(My) house has become decrepit.’ ɲamnam masticate food, particularly when half-chewing food to give to a child. 1 vt. -ɲap vs:adv. continuously. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb occurs as a continuous process. Var: -yap. vs:adv. continuously. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb occurs as a continuous process vt. ɲamnam -ɲap `meɲɲap ɲamii speak continuously. n:kin. last daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address n:kin. daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer to the wife of the wife of one’s youngest son. ɲaməə any of one’s sons, by blood or kin. ɲaməə-`gɨnam vi. of a man, play or run around with a mistress or lover, whether married or not. `bɨɨ ɲaməə-`gɨduu. ‘He’s playing around.’ See: ɲaməə ‘daughter-in-law’; `gɨnam ‘sneak’. n:kin. 1 • first vt. take in a 2 daughter-in-law; especially, manage the various rituals that are required as part of the process of taking in a daughter-in-law, such as visiting every house in the village upon leaving it and going to a new one, presenting the bridal rice to her on the way to her new village, etc. dooluu `əm ɲaŋgoo `laa, namm `əm, aken-aken `əm, `inla...‘They took her on the bridal visitation rounds around the village, going to each house one by one...’ `Igoo `gə `ann `ə ɲaməə-`ɲamduu. ‘Igo’s mother is taking in a daughter-in-law.’ Atər `bɨɨ ɲaməə-`ɲamko `duu. ‘Atər is undergoing the rituals associated with becoming a daughter-in-law.’ vt. sharpen; make a 3 sharp point on something using a knife or dao. ɲamnam `ɲamtə ɲamroo daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address the first wife married into a family (generally, the wife of one’s eldest son). 2 • respected daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer respectfully to Var: ɲamyoo (P). n:kin. second daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address the second wife married into the family (generally, the wife of one’s second son in birth order). vt. 1 • push `ɲarnam gradually any younger male kinsman’s wife, irrespective of birth or marriage order. using a tool. 2 • dig by thrusting directly into ɲamdəə n:kin. third daughter-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address the third wife married into the family (generally, the wife of one’s third son in birth order). a substance, as opposed to wedging or thrusting at an angle, as a pig when digging with its snout in search of tubers, or a bulldozer or snowplough when moving earth or snow. ərək ə kodee `əm `ɲarkaa. ‘The pig dug 126 -`ɲi ɲikok up the soil (searching for roots to eat).’ 3 • fuck; ɲii n. person; man; human being. have intercourse, as coarsely construed and/or impolitely described. numr. two. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier expressions ŋoii `nəɲɲi go ‘two fish’. See: `aɲi ‘two’. adj:mono. small. Adjective root -`ɲi -ɲi combining with classifiers and other noun roots. `hɨɨn `nəɲɲi `nago ‘a small tree’. See: aɲɲii ‘a bit’. someone; some other person/people; others; person or persons whose identity one does not know. ŋo `ɲiik nam lo ins `kaaduu. ‘I have to go to someone else’s house (that’s why I have to leave early).’ “no `ɲiik `hɨɨdaa `əm `nuutɨr jikaa ku.” ‘“You broke somebody’s stick.”‘. `ɲiik gaarii go `cootuu nammə `ɲii. ‘It seems he stole someone’s car.’ pro. ɲii-`jaa ɲia `ɲii n:poet. human. Usage: Goŋku. n. real person; original person; pure person; non-inferior See: ɲii person; non-slave. ‘person’; `jaa ‘real’. n. human being. See: ɲii ‘person’; tanii ‘human’. pcl. turn out that; figure out discover that. Gram: Discovery particle following a noun or copula, indicating that the information mentioned by the speaker has just been discovered, or figured out by means of deduction. Often best translated by English ‘seem’ or ‘must be’, although only in the sense of ‘discovery’, not of evidence. Cannot follow verbs unless kaaku they are nominalized. that; ɲii-tanii ɲii-hobə n. gentleman; cultured person; good person. See: ɲii ‘person’; hobə ‘mithun’. n. 1 • old woman. Usually refers to a human, but is also used by some speakers to refer to old (female) animals. ɲikam nammə, tatɨk ə dooku maa. kegee `kunnaa `ɲii. ‘They looked and the frog was not there anymore. It seemed he had run away (spkr. has no direct knowledge of this).’ `əgə, məənamə...Caina `araa `tol `eeɲii. ‘So this, if you think about it...must have been up in China.’ Aci `kuɲii. ‘It turned out to be Elder Brother.’ `og Abo-Tani `accoob `indool kaanamə - `bɨɨ `hil-`lədum `lo, `yas `hɨɨlɨk `duuna `ɲii! ‘Then, Abo Tani -going very carefully and looking - discovered that she was pissing into the lakehead!’ 2 • grandmother. Usage: (P). adj. old, of a woman. ŋo maaji `bə ɲikam `duu! ‘I’m such an old woman!’ ɲikam-horam old woman; wizened old dame. See: ɲikam ‘old woman’; horam ‘sick old animal’. n. n. wise old person; aged and accomplished person. n. element of a loin loom. `ɲiko `ɲikoo ɲikok n. cultural expert; orator; sage; very knowledgeable and accomplished person who has mastered most traditional 127 ɲiktap ɲinam knowledge and is able to speak artfully on any subject. ɲiktap `ɲigaa ɲigam vi. blink of an eye. Usage: (P). n. warrior; strong man. adj. strong, of a man. 1 n. expert hunter; man who is notably successful at hunting. the negotiation process and the actual culmination/ceremony. Properly indicates only the process of marriage proposal by the man’s family to the woman’s. Upon acceptance of the proposal, the “ɲidaa” is considered complete. In usage, however, may also denote the marriage ceremony. n:poet. male. Usage: Goŋku. ɲidam Ɲigam 2 name. Ɲigam village, name of a Lare Galo village in central West Siang district. handicapped person; person with a deformity or disability by birth. n. n. human flesh, considered ɲidin ɲigom n. 1 • VIP; very important person; special or honourable person endowed with some appreciable social status. as a potential food item, as for cannibals; human meat. `ɲidum ɲidoo n. everybody; everyone. 2 • officer; high functionary in the state or national bureaucracy. n. rain. ɲidoo oku maa. ‘It isn’t raining anymore.’ `ɲici `ɲijɨr Var: `ɲisi (P). n. patient; sick n. girl. adj. rainy. `hiloo ɲidoo `rəpə. ‘It person; ill person. may rain today.’ ɲidoo-kessoo-kelloo Var: kessoo-kelloo. n. variety of lizard. Syn: dooɲi-kessoo-kelloo. See: ɲidoo ‘rain’; kessoo-kelloo ‘variety of lizard’. Ɲiɲoo name. Minyong, an Eastern Tani tribe (or “sub-tribe” of “Adi”) of East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. n. crowd of people; throng. `ɲina ɲitɨɨ ɲitɨɨ-homen vt. look after someone; take care of someone; be someone’s guardian angel. `ŋok ɲitɨɨ-homen nam porok `əm `yəəla `coodak `na? ‘Who has stolen my special chicken (which I’ve been taking such good care of)?’ n. rich person. no `den `ɲittə. ‘You’re the rich one (not me).’ adj. rich. `ŋok `ao `ə `ɲit `duuku! pcl. Indirect certaintive. Gram: Copula particle indicating indirect speaker certainty regarding the information contained in the clause; i.e., that the speaker is certain that the predicated information has been claimed to be true, or is believed to be the case by someone. `tol ee `ɲitə ‘My son has become rich!’ `ɲina. ‘It is definitely said to have happened up there.’ Ab Tanii `accob `pukkool kaakaa nammə `uŋŋaa go `duunaa `ɲina. ‘Abo Tani having ever so slightly opened it and looked (and) it turned out that there was a baby inside, right?’ ɲidaa n. marriage, including both ɲinam v:c.arg. be sunny. Gram: Generally occurs with associated 128 ɲino ɲimə `henam noun “dooɲi” ‘sun’ dooɲi `ɲiduu. ‘The sun’s shining.’ ɲino pcl. certain (that); sure (that). Gram: Certainty particle following a copula “əə” or “ee” indicating that the speaker has direct access to and certainty concerning the information contained in the clause. `tol ee ɲino. face-to-face. ŋo `bɨəm `ɲibəə `bə kaarɨk hito. ‘I met him in person.’ `ɲimaa sun. n. 1 • figure; outline figure of a person. 2 • shadow; figure cast by the 3 • reflection; figure cast in water. 4 • picture; ‘I am certain it happened up there.’ `pak kunamə ɲino. ‘In the end, we killed him (like that).’ photograph. ɲii-`ɲimaa shadow. ɲindum `ɲipak n:poet. Usage: Goŋku. woman. ɲimaa adj. poor, lacking money and possessions. Syn: yəmaa. n. 1 • enemy. n. non-hill-tribal. Term referring mainly to plains people, but also to non-hill-tribals in general. Generally includes all non-tribal Indians, as well as plains tribals, but is not used to refer to any Arunachali hill tribals or hill tribals of other North East Indian states, such as Nagas, Manipuris, or Mizos. n. `ɲimak 2 • war. `ɲimak make war’. `monam ‘to ɲimek ɲimə n. Tibetan person. n:kin. wife. Usage: used to refer `ɲipə visage; countenance; identity. `ɲip `kaajek maa. ‘I can’t make out his face (who he is).’ n. grave. to, but generally not to address, one’s wife. `bɨɨ `nok ɲimmə ɲoo! ‘She’s your wife after all (don’t treat her like that)!’ `ɲimə n. hill person; hill tribal. vi. cheat on one’s ɲimə jugnam ɲibuu `ɲibo n. priest; shaman; sorcerer, particularly a priest of the Donyi Polo religious tradition. adj. be a priest; act as a priest; husband; of a wife, leave her husband without his knowledge and go to another man. Tabee `gə ɲimmə ɲim jukkaa ku. ‘Tabee’s wife left him for another man.’ See: ɲimə ‘wife’; jugnam ‘run’. perform the duties of a priest. ɲimə `laanam ɲibo n. 1 • non-kin person; person from a non-kin/non-taboo clan, eligible for marriage, or that clan itself. `ɲaŋkoo! `ɲibbok `aaduu `lakaa! Fourth Daughter-in-Law! Some (unexpected) guests are coming!’ 2 • guest; invitee. v:inc.arg.O. marry a woman; take a wife; get married, of a man. məəleemə, `bɨɨ `kohuk `əm ɲim `laato. ‘Thinking about that, he took a dried-up leaf as a wife.’ See: ɲimə ‘wife’; `laanam ‘take’. ɲimə `henam `ɲibəə adj. in person; in the flesh; vt. kidnap a woman; forcibly take a woman as a wife or slave. See: ɲimə ‘wife’; `henam ‘pull’. 129 ɲimə-`koodaa ɲumnam ɲimə-`koodaa Var: `nuugaa (P). n. `ɲiloo-`rabgo Var: `eyap (P). n. woman’s balcony; narrow balcony surrounding a house, to which women were traditionally confined during taboo periods. See: ɲimə ‘wife’; `koodaa ‘balcony’. men’s doorway, leading in from the “`koodaa” balcony towards the “`imik” fireplace, near the “`baago” father’s seating area in the interior. See: `ɲiloo ‘husband’; `rabgo ‘doorway’. ɲimə-`rabgo Var: `eyap (P). n. women’s doorway, usually leading in from the “ɲimə-`koodaa” women’s balcony. See: ɲimə ‘wife’; `rabgo ‘doorway’. n. rich person. Usage: rare, ɲilo-hodoo person. Var: ɲilɨ-hodoo (P). n. 1 • evildoer; bad or undisciplined 2 • terrorist; extremist. adj. cruel. `ɲirəm `ɲilap ɲuunam most often used in a sarcastic or joking manner. rare, non-enumerative form referring to a set of twenty (often, of sticks), or half an “aro”. ɲilap gobboolo pɨɨrə. ‘A set of twenty (sticks) will do.’ n. n. crowd of people. vt. stir with a tool, such as a stirring-stick, or with one’s finger. vt. stir in circles, as when stirring soup. ɲuugoo ɲuŋkoo nce. See: taɲum-ɲuŋkoo-podoo ‘huge thorn’. ɲiluu ɲilum `ɲilee `ɲuŋmoo `ɲum n. population; people; body of a people. n. face, of the head of a living thing. pcl. only; just; simply. Gram: Delimiting particle indicating that nothing more, else, or other than the marked information is the case. n. living human, particularly as construed in terms of his death, as in the context of a murder or war; condemned man; human who undergoes or will undergo unnatural death. n. murderer. `ɲilee pana `ɲiloo Var: `ɲillo (P). n:kin. husband. Usage: used to refer to, but generally not to address, one’s husband. Var: `nuugaa (P). n. men’s balcony. Main, often `ɲiloo-`koodaa very large, balcony of a house. Traditionally off-limits to women, although nowadays usually not so. See: `ɲiloo ‘husband’; `koodaa ‘balcony’. `kopak `ə `ɲum `doken `duu. ‘Only the bananas are delicious (the other fruit available are not).’ homen `əmda `kaapaa maa, `all `əm `ɲum ɲoo. ‘We didn’t see the tiger in the end, though, just his footprints.’ ŋo nam `lokkə `korlen `ɲum nammə ɲoo. ‘(At the time when the accident happened) I had *just* stepped out of my house.’ `tiiɲum `tak `lo...‘To *just* start it getting sweet...’ `ɲumɲɨr n. variety anopheles mosquito. of small ɲumnam vt. squeeze. ŋo Pipi `gə 130 `ɲepum `ɲognam alak `əm `ɲumduu. squeezing Pipi’s arm.’ ‘I’m see the actual chop).’ `ɲepum `ɲebuu `ɲeruu n. nose. Var: ɲobuu (P). n. tail. n. ear. vt. ɲoodəə elders’ and guests’ resting area, to one side of an “`imik” fireplace. n. vt. cause an animal to ɲoonam `ɲeruu `monam brand livestock by making a sign on the ear, so as to tell one’s own animals apart from those of others. See: `ɲeruu ‘ear’; `monam ‘make’. wild taro traditionally eaten. n. come, either by calling/beckoning (as for pigs) or by tempting with a treat (as when tempting a cow with salt). ŋo hobb `əm `ɲooduu. ‘I’m beckoning the mithun.’ `ɲerɨk ɲoo ɲoopee plant, not pcl. actually. Gram: Counterexpective particle, marking information as being counter to, contrary to, the opposite of, or otherwise inconsistent with an expectation (whether the expectation is held by the speaker himself or presumed to be held by an addressee). May give a sense that the speaker is correcting an error someone else has made. ŋo “caaci” n. flattened bamboo; bamboo which has been cut around the circumference and flattened, as for the floor or walls of a house. `ɲoosi Var: `ɲoosi-peŋkoo. n. women’s resting area, opposite the “`baago” at a Galo fireplace. `ɲoosi-`peŋkoo əmnamə ɲoo! ‘I said “caaci” (not “caacaa”).’ yɨɨji maaɲoo, `yɨɨp-roodoo. ‘Actually, not a garbage fly, a horsefly.’ `bɨɨ kuɲɲoo; `ŋun da `cemmaa. ‘It may have been him who broke it; we know nothing about it.’ n. women’s resting area, so-called because it is located in the area between the two fireplaces of a house. See: `ɲoosi ‘women’s resting area’; `peŋkoo ‘middle’. vs:adv. placatingly. Gram: Manner or purpose suffix indicating that the subject acts in a placating way or in order or patronize an inferior, such as a baby, child, or animal. nce. See: `dookoo-`ɲokik -`ɲok -ɲoo -ɲi. vs:adv. away from others; departing from the scene. Gram: Result suffix usually Var: -ɲii; `ɲokik `ɲokə `ɲogaa ‘heat lightning’. n. black panther. n. found on motion verbs indicating that the subject leaves an area or a group as a result of the action indicated by the verb. tatɨk ə arum `ogo `poglen `ɲoolaa ku. ‘In the evening, the frog had jumped out (of the bottle) and away.’ ŋo hobb `əm `padak `lo iɲɲii to. ‘I left at the mithun-killing time (saw the preparations, but didn’t variety of loud, high-energy chant. See: `gaanam ‘chant (variety)’. of a disease, to manifest itself, either in the sense of afflicting a particular person or of spreading within a community; transmit or infect, of vt. `ɲognam 131 `ɲogrin kaaɲɨɨ a disease; be contagious, of a disease. `acc `ə `ɲogduu. ‘The disease is present (and spreading).’ `acc `ə dooluu `əm `ɲogduu ku. ‘The disease has infected the whole village.’ behind; forget to bring something. ŋo `yaraa go `ɲopen kaa. ‘I forgot to bring something.’ `ɲobuu ɲobo n. tail pronunciation). n:kin. (alternate `ɲogrin Var: `ɲoŋin (P). n. white rice beer, made via a relatively fast and straightforward fermentation process, without as many steps as for “`pookaa”. `ɲogrin cinnam (2) to prepare white rice beer”. brother-in-law; son-in-law. Usage: (P). n. tassled base of an “`ɨrɨɨ” `ɲobok ritual object, a variety of medallion-like object made from “`dɨrci” bamboo strips and hung from sacrificial altars. `ɲoŋin n. white rice beer. Usage: (P). n. See: `ɲogrin ‘white rice beer (L)’. -ɲom `ɲoŋin-dossoo Usage: (P). cockroach. See: `takci-bəree Var: -yom. vs:adv. mixed up. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is mixed up as a result of the action indicated by the verb ‘cockroach (L)’. gaaɲom ‘soften/knead, as rice when eating’. `ɲoŋər `ɲocəə n. tail joint; point at which the tail joins the body, forming the axis on which it swings. Var: `ɲosəə (P). n. lower spine; lower part of the backbone, where a tail would normally emerge in an animal which has one. `ɲomnam vt. swallow. ŋo acin `əm ɲomkaa. ‘I swallowed the food.’ ŋo ɲomkaa. ‘I swallowed (something, maybe spit).’ vt. absorb; take in by swallowing. `ɲomlɨk Ɲorak `ɲotuu `ɲotup `ɲotə adj. tailless, i.e. without a tail. Usage: (P). See: kootuu ‘tailless (L)’. n. tip of an animal’s tail. name. name of a Galo clan with traditionally close relations to the `Ɲodu, among others. `ɲoree n. big cat with striped or elaborately-designed coat, of any of several varieties. n. fishtail; tail of a fish. n. tiger; lion; giant wildcat of any variety. Syn: `hoɲo. 1 `ɲolap `ɲɨo -ɲɨɨ `ɲodu n. dried tiger’s jaw, fixed in the belt of a sword to wear as an ornament signifying dignity and prowess. n. cousin; child (male or female) of one’s maternal aunt’s daughter. `Ɲodu 2 name. name of a Galo clan. n. `ɲopin tiger skin. Usage: (P). See: `menpin ‘tiger skin (L)’. vt. vs:adv. disparagingly. Gram: Manner suffix to a transitive verb indicating that the subject has a disparaging view of the object in bringing about the action indicated by the verb. vt. disapprove of what `ɲopen leave something kaaɲɨɨ 132 məəɲɨɨ ɲɨktəm one sees. `nok `rɨnam `əm ŋo kaaɲɨɨ `duu. ‘I don’t approve of your actions.’ məəɲɨɨ `ɲɨɨ- vt. resent; despise; mind or object to a transgression. case any problems are encountered in the course of childbirth, such as death of the mother. ɲɨɨpoo hinam ‘to die in childbirth’. clfr. Classifier for years. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `ɲɨɨrɨɨ aum `golaa `ɲɨɨken `ɲɨɨbɨɨ n:kin. maternal aunt’s son. Usage: used to refer to or address the son of one’s mother’s sister. ‘thirty-one years See: `aɲɨɨ ‘year’. (of age)’. -ɲɨɨ...-co vs:advs. mind about something; object to something. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject feels put out, minds or objects to something in terms of the action indicated by the verb. `ɲɨɨgam `bə adv. happy new year. `ɲɨɨgam `bə `dei! ‘Happy new year!’ `ɲɨɨcoo-`loocoo v. prepare materials in advance of a task. See: `ɲɨɨnam ‘prepare materials’; loonam ‘provide provisions’; -`coo ‘first; in advance’. məəɲɨɨ məəco kumaa `bə `kə! ‘Don’t y’all go mindin’ now!’ See: -ɲɨɨ ‘not good’. `ɲɨə Var: `ɲəə (P). n:time. two years from now; year after next. 1 ɲɨɨɲi maternal aunt’s daughter. Usage: used to refer to or address the daughter of one’s mother’s sister. n:kin. n:time. three years hence; three years from the time of speaking. n. ode; ballad. 1 `ɲɨkci `ɲɨkci Var: `ɲɨksi (P). n. left eye. Var: `ɲɨksi (P). n. 2 disease; sty; conjunctivitis. eye `ɲɨkci-polɨɨ Var: `ɲɨksi-polɨɨ (P). `ɲɨɨten ɲɨɨtom adj. of the eyes, to be irritated and slightly red, as after swimming for a long time. See: `ɲɨkci ‘eye disease’. `ɲɨɨnam vt. manage, organize or `ɲɨkci-`rɨlii prepare materials, as for construction of a house. ŋo `yaraa `əm `ɲɨɨrə. ‘I’ll prepare the materials (for the construction task).’ Var: `ɲɨcsi-gəlii (P). n. conjunctivitis. See: `ɲɨkci ‘eye disease’; `rɨlii ‘plague’. Var: ɲɨksəə (P). 1 • closed eyes. adj. ɲɨkcəə `ɲɨɨnam pass, of a year. 2 v:c.arg. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`aɲɨɨ” ‘year’ `aɲɨɨ `ə `ɲɨɨbik kaa. ‘The year passed without consequence (good or bad).’ vt. close the eyes. ɲɨkcəə `laa `dakt `kee! ‘Stand there with your eyes closed!’ ŋo aɲɨk `əm ɲɨkcəə `duu. ‘I’m closing my eyes.’ ɲɨktap-pootap Usage: (P). vi. blink. Ɲɨɨpoo name. name of the spirit of pregnancy/childbirth, who is considered to be responsible in ɲɨktəm n. brow; area above the eye, not including hair. 133 `ɲɨkpam ɲɨglaa `ɲɨkpam `ɲɨkpin ɲɨkpuu `ɲɨkpoo n. blind person. n. eyelid. n. white of the eye. adj. open, of the eyes. ɲɨgmaa to see. adj. blind; sightless; unable `ɲɨgmii aɲɨk ə `ɲɨkpoo `duuku. ‘(His) eyes have opened.’ open the eyes. `ɲɨkpoo `tokuk! ‘Open your eyes!’ vt. adj. eyes slanted or pointed downward. aɲɨk ə `ɲɨgmii `duu. ‘(Her) eyes are pointing downward.’ `ɲɨgmə `ɲɨksi nce. eye water; water from the eyes. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `ɲɨksi-ɲɨglaa ‘eye water’. n. water emerging n. eye hair, including lashes and brows. `ɲɨgmə `tuupaa kuma; ɲɨgoo `əmpaa kumaa. ‘I can’t catch so much as a glimpse of you (you’re completely lost to me).’ See: `amə ‘body hair’. Var: ɲɨktap-pootap (P). vi. `ɲɨksi-ɲɨglaa ɲɨgyap from the eyes, as when overwhelmed by the heat of a chilli pepper. Not used for tears resulting from crying. blink. no ɲɨgyap `duu. ‘You’re blinking.’ vt. wink at (someone). no `ŋom ɲɨgyap kaa. ‘You winked at me.’ `ɲɨgor n. spectacles; glasses. n. ɲɨgree crap. n. 1 • high priest; advanced ɲɨgjak-baayak Usage: (P). eye shaman. 2 • divination dance; variety of ɲɨgji n. pupil; coloured centre of the eye. ɲɨgji-pajak n. eye crap; crap deposited in the corner of one’s eye, as after sleeping. See: ɲɨgji ‘pupil’. n. ɲɨgji-baajik eye crap; crap deposited in the corner of one’s eye, as after sleeping. See: ɲɨgji ‘pupil’. nce. See: ɲɨgjək-bərək adj. variety of eyelid ɲɨgjək ‘eyelid deformity’. dance performed by shamans to try to determine the cause of something, as a disease or the disappearance of an animal, and to determine the appropriate course of action (usually, what sort of animal is to be sacrificed to appease whatever spirits are involved in the mishap); literally, an examination performed with fully closed eyes. ɲɨgree hookaa `jilaa `kee. ‘Please dance me an examination dance (to determine the cause of this problem).’ ɲɨgjək-bərək `ɲɨgrə n. dust particles in the eye. deformity, when lid is split in single or multiple places. See: ɲɨgji-pajak ‘eye crap’. ɲɨgrəm adj. lazy-eyed; one eye looking off to the side (a birth defect). n. tear; water emerging from the eyes when crying. See: `ɲɨksi-ɲɨglaa ‘eye water’. `ɲɨgbum `ɲɨgbək n. eyes with non-folded lids, as of a Mongoloid person. n. right eye. ɲɨglaa 134 ɲɨglo `Ɲɨhɨɨ ɲɨglo have cataracts; be affected by cataracts and unable to see. adj. n. blue or other bright-coloured eyes, as those of a cat or some Caucasians. ɲɨjɨk `ɲɨglor priest-like person; knowledgeable and spiritually-inclined person who is, however, not a shaman or priest. n. -`ɲɨr ɲɨglɨɨ adj. red-eyed; of the eyes, to be irritated and red. n. glimpse. vs:adv. laughable. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the event indicated by the verb is funny, laughable or ridiculous. adj. funny; hilarious. `məəɲɨr `ə! ‘Hilarious!’ vi. laugh; smile. `ɲɨŋmə-ɲii ɲɨjɨɨ `məəɲɨr ɲɨrnam n. 1 • old man. 2 • grandfather. Usage: (P). adj. old, of a man. `bɨɨ ɲɨjɨɨ jɨɨben `jaaduu. ‘He’s too bloody old.’ `yoogo `laa `ɲɨrduu `ko? ‘What are you laughing at?’ n. smile. ɲɨjɨɨ-ɲikam folks. n. old people; old ɲɨrsum adj. old, of a set of people, especially an elderly couple. `bulu `ɲɨjɨɨɨɨ-ɲikam `nduuku! ‘They’re reeeeally old (of a couple)!’ See: ɲɨjɨɨ ‘old man’; ɲikam ‘old woman’. adj. smiling. no ɲɨrsum `duu `lakaa. ‘You’re smiling, to my surprise.’ ɲɨrsum-pomum `Ɲɨhɨɨ n. smile. adj. smiling. See: ɲɨrsum ‘smile’. Var: `Ɲihɨɨ. name. Nyishi, a major Western Tani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. ɲɨjɨɨ-hokam Var: ɲɨjɨɨ-honə (P). n. old man, in a jocular or mildly pejorative sense. See: ɲɨjɨɨ ‘old man’; hokam ‘wizened old animal’. 135 -`ta taaci T -`ta Var: -`t. vs:adv. about to; going to. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is incipient, is about to happen, has not happened yet, or is hoped to happen. Occurs frequently on subordinated Purpose clauses in “`-bə”. aloo ə looŋam `taduu ku. - t own head (in addition to the mithun head which was already in use).’ -`taa modal ‘The day is about to be over.’ akii ə `dett `duuku! ‘My stomach is about to burst!’ `hok `int boolo, parə `pə; `ak `int boolo, parə `pə. ‘If we set out via this way, they may get us; if we set out via that way, they may get us.’ vs:mod. Motion Gram: Suffix indicating that in bringing about the event mentioned by the verb, the subject moves or must move away from his/her/its place of origin. Found only in imperative, permissive, and propositional sentences (not in interrogatives or declaratives). no `ak `ɨhɨɨ go Var: -ttaa. suffix. ta- pfx. Masculine diminutive prefix to a nominal, adjectival or proper name root. Gram: In the nominal lexicon, generally found on lower animals and insects, small or componential features of the natural world, and terms relating to males or human beings more generally, but is not often productive in this capacity. Occurs rarely on adjectives, principally features of the natural world. Productive as a nicknaming prefix to the name root of a male, generally carrying a connotation of familiarity and possibly superiority on the part of the speaker. Aci `laakaa `taa. ‘Go and get some wood from that one.’ `dottaa `kee! ‘Go (there and) eat!’ `anə, `hog `duutak. ‘Mother, sit here (moving from the place at which you currently are).’ `laataa `dee? ‘I’ll get it (from there) for you, shall I?’ `is `huttaa `lapə.” ‘I reckon I’ll go take a bath.” taakuu `taakee n. variety of bird. n. variety of plant, with thorns, somewhat like a blackberry bush. Delonix sp. (brachycarpa?). n. dove. Most general term for dove, though properly referring to the rufous turtle dove. Frenetic, wing-clapping upward flight and coasting downward flight. Hunted and eaten. Streptopelia orientalis. n. variety of winged termite, living in the ground, emerging with wings in the evening in April, May and June. Edible. nce. See: doolo-taaci ‘variety `taakə Tamin ‘nickname Brother Kenmin’. of Elder again; -taa vs:adv. additionally; Gram: Manner suffix indicating, of an event, that it should happen again (having happened before at least once already), or of a type of object, that more should be affected (in the same way as before). more. `taaŋin lagi `taaduu. ‘(I) want some more.’ `mɨɨk dumpoo `əm pəətaa `hila. ‘He included some of his taaci 136 taaɲii tao of bird’. or an unknown species. mayfly. taaɲii `taatə n. taasin-purin seal’. n. Usage: (P). See: `aakii-taaɲii-`taaree ‘dragonfly’. nce. See: `jɨɨtə-`taatə See: acin-paarin ‘false Solomon’s ‘sun taii 1 n. variety of insect. (poetic)’. `taanam `taapar taanam `taapin `taapə vt. spread out; release, Taii causing to spread and disperse. vt. unfold and spread out (something which had been rolled-up). vi. untie; become untied, especially of a shoelace. nce. See: `oin-`taapin ‘variety of plant’. n. element of a loin loom, a name. dialect of the Galo 2 language, also known as Taipodia or Taipudia. Mostly spoken in Likabali town, on the Assam border at the extreme southern edge of the West Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh, and in villages to the north and west thereof, including Magi, Siji and Jaate, to the north of Likabali, and Kame, to the northwest. `Taii `taii taik tain smooth, very sturdy section of wood, tapered at both ends, used for bunching up thread which has been sent through by the shuttle; found immediately above the “kobdaa”, and below the “`niikoo”. name of a river in 3 name. Tirbin circle. n. last or youngest son. See: `oii ‘last child’. n. leprosy. n. mushroom. taamɨɨ taayap n:poet. girl. Usage: Goŋku. tain-indəə Var: yapkaa (P). n. fan; prototypically, a hand-held rotary swing-fan made of a sheet of bamboo weave. taayap yabnam ‘to wave a fan.’ See: yabnam ‘to fan’. n. variety of edible fungus, quite large, ground-growing, reddish in colour, cup-shaped. See: tain ‘mushroom’; indəə ‘late-grower’. n. conical thatched roof traditionally placed over a Galo grave. tai-`boojup `taek `taek taen tao 1 `taayoo `taaree Var: aree (P). n:rel. top; top side; upper side. nce. Usage: Usually n. variety of Pterocryptis afghana. catfish. dragonfly. occurs in n. pearl millet. Pennisetum glaucum. compound. See: `akɨɨ-taaɲii-`taaree ‘dragonfly’. n. cowry shell, traditionally used as an element of ornaments. n. variety of bee, smaller than a “taŋik”, hatching from nest-holes in rotten wood. taalii n. plate, for Source: Assamese. eating from. `taalɨɨ n. red-coloured bird, of any 137 tao takee tao 2 n. 1 • thorn. takaa 1 n. black one. nce. ərək takaa 2 • splinter. ‘black pig’. tao-atii taoo n. honey of the “tao” bee. `takaa `takaa takaa 1 See: `takaa-lagbuu See: tao ‘bee variety’; atii ‘honey’. n. hail; frozen rain. Usage: (P). See: taɨ ‘hail (L)’. ‘leather armlet’. 2 vt. ask, as a question. `taok n. variety of bamboo, used to make rope, as well as “`oor” impaling stakes. Cephalotachyum fuschlanum. Var: taoo (P). n. hail; frozen rain. 2 nce. fern. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: oo-takaa ‘fiddlehead fern’. `takaa-lagbuu taɨ `taɨk `taɨr taək n. head louse. Pediculus humanus capitis. See: takə ‘body louse’. n. variety of small, fly-like bee. n. n. leather armlet; variety of ornament consisting of a hairy (unpolished) wild goat leather band worn around the forearm. See: lagbuu ‘armlet’. n. phlegm; mucus settled in the back of the throat. `takak fan palm, a large, water-resistant, fan-leaved palm which grows abundantly in Arunachal Pradesh, both wild and under cultivation. An essential component of house construction, it is used principally as roof shingling and is among the most important natural resources exploited by Galo. Livistona jenkinsiana. `takam Var: ta`kaam ‘emphatic form’. n:qual. every; every one; all. Gram: Qualifying noun following another noun with the overall sense ‘all of x’ or ‘every (one of) x’. Source: Minyong (Adi). ɲii `əm `takaam `əm gogg rəku `laa...‘After calling every one of the people...’ `tokkə `iin `takaam `ə `Daarɨɨ `gə amin `əm `gəduu. ‘Everyone who came down from up there carry the name of Daring.’ tak- clfqr. Classifier for flat-sided entities, especially fragments or pieces of a whole, as pieces of betelnut or cheeks (on a face). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: atak ‘flat-sided takam n. clay. n. takam-ramsəə Usage: (P). kindling. See: tako-ramcəə ‘kindling’. takar Takii n. star. piece’. -tak vs:adv. cracked. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is cracked or a barrier is broken in the action indicated by the verb. Also occurs in the semi-reduplicated form naatak ‘throw “-tak...-yak”. name. nickname of Rwkii, the legendary brother of Abo Tani from whom the spirits and demons are descended. See: Rɨkii. n. variety of fig used for firewood, fruit and for mithun food; typically found in deep jungle. Ficus spp. n. `takuk something through (a window) causing it to break’. takee ginger. Commonly 138 `takek takə-koocəə cultivated and prized as a flavouring agent for all manner of foods. Also employed with a ritual value, particularly during the “moopin” festival period. Traditionally believed to have the power to ward off attacks by forest spirits such as “yapom”. Zingiber officinale. takom n. grasshopper. takom-dummaa `takek `takek takek 1 n. filth; dirt; soil on the n. variety of giant cane, n. death essence; a virus-like, n. variety of grasshopper with a steeply sloped head. Literally, ‘headless grasshopper’. Figures prominently as a comical character in Galo folklore. See: takom ‘grasshopper’; dummaa ‘headless’. Usage: (P). ‘variety of bird’. n. variety of bird. See: takoo-paapuk body. 2 takom-papok takom-yamə takor top-quality and very costly. itching emission of a corpse, which is believed to have the power to spread. n. variety of insect. See: takom ‘grasshopper’. n. hilt; the metal binding at `tako Var: korsik (P). n. Himalayan screw pine. Variety of tree-sized pandanus, found in shady or sunny areas alike at medium elevations with huge, spreading, slender, toothed leaves. Pandanus furcatus. nce. See: tako-ramcəə the blade end of a dao or knife handle. tako-ramcəə Var: takam-ramsəə (P). n. kindling; very small sticks dropped from trees, used for starting a fire. takɨɨ n. blood dysentery. tako takoo ‘kindling’. nce. variety of bird. Usage: usu. occurs in compounds. See: takoo-paapuk ‘variety of takɨɨ-`tabum n. grievous diseases, of all kinds; diseases with the potential to destroy the body and kill the human host. See: takɨɨ ‘dysentery’; `tabum ‘smallpox’. 1 bird’. takə is n. squirrel. 2 takoo-paapuk Var: takom-papok (P). n. variety Takə name. nickname for boys. of bird, whose name onomatopoeic with its call. `takə `tako-`bəlaa See: `tako n. pineapple. ‘pandanus’; `bəlaa ‘jackfruit’. n. body louse; cootie; human parasitic louse, white in colour, living in clothing and feeding on blood. Pediculus humanus humanus. Var: tak-koocə; takə-koosəə (P). n. jungle-dwelling rodent of any variety, including squirrels, chipmunks, and so on. See: takə ‘squirrel’; koocəə ‘chipmunk’. `takom of fish trap, usually constructed from cane or bamboo, placed in a river channel opposite the current. Fish can enter but cannot escape. n. variety takə-koocəə 139 `takci tagnam `takci takci nce. See: `takci-bəree ‘cockroach’. Var: taksi (P). n. half, especially of a pipe-like object. `hɨgɨ takci `gonna. ‘This is one of the two halves.’ n. See: bəree ‘insect’. `takci-bəree `taktɨr cockroach. According to tradition, any wood or plant product which is cut or harvested during moonlight will be destroyed by “tagik” within a single day. For this reason, wood or plant products such as bamboo, fan palm leaves or trees will only be harvested during a time of moonless nights. n. variety of wild fruit, deep tagik-`tacaa red in colour. Used metaphorically to describe the colour of flushed cheeks. `taktə adj. broad, or a more or less flat thing, or thing with at least one flat surface. `iss `ə `taktə `duu. ‘The river is broad/high (due to the melting northern snows).’ n. wood-boring insects, in general. See: tagik ‘wood-boring insect (variety)’; `tacaa ‘wood-boring insect (variety)’. n. taguu tago variety of wild fruit, somewhat like a mango. n. variety of ceremony. See: tago-ɲɨgree ‘”tago” shaman’. n. shaman who is capable of performing a “tago” ceremony. See: tago ‘ceremony variety’; ɲɨgree ‘high priest’. Usage: (P). `tagak proposal of marriage made by a man to a woman. n. tago-ɲɨgree vt. engage someone to be married, particularly a female. `ŋok `ao-ɲijɨr `əm `tagak `duu. ‘My daughter’s gotten engaged.’ tagjii adj. narrow. See: tagyaa ‘narrow’. tagam tagam 1 ace. See: tagam-`taree tagjek tagdə n. shard, as of glass. See: tak- ‘pockmarked’. 2 ‘crack’. n. other side; opposite side or bank, of a river, road, train rail, etc. n. hitchhiker seed; any kind of seed with hooks, adhesive, hairs, or any sort of system for sticking to clothing or the body of a human or animal. tagnam tagam-`taree adj. pockmarked, as of a face. `bɨk `ɲuŋmoo tagam-`taree `duu. ‘His face is full of pockmarks.’ See: `taree ‘non-uniform’. n. variety of wood-boring fly. vi. crack, of most any object, including bamboo, wood, glass, and the earth’s surface; be or become cracked (through the action of something else). `tagduu ku. ‘(The glass) has become cracked.’ tagik Extremely small, almost invisible, but equally unstoppable and responsible for vast amounts of damage to houses, as well as to bamboo and fan palm stores. vt. 1 • split or crack something, of bamboo and logs, but not glass. 2 • dig overhand, dig a hole or trench, as with a spade or hoe. aruu tagnam ‘to dig a hole with a spade’. 140 tagbaa `tacup 3 • hew; cleave; especially, to cut a pole out of a tree for the purpose of making a house pillar. ŋo `hɨɨtak `əm `tagduu. ‘I’m hewing a pole (for use as a pillar).’ whether natural or synthetic. True “`tacak” fibre has coagulant properties, and may be applied to wounds to stop bleeding. `tacak `cagnam ‘to spin cotton’. See: `cagnam ‘spin cotton’. tagbaa tagyaa `taŋaa n. sheer slope. Var: tagjii (P). adj. narrow. n. male idiot. adj. tacap Var: tasap (P). See: tacap-buugap nce. ‘variety of suckerfish’. `taŋaa-`taraa taŋar taŋik tacap-buugap Var: tasap-buugap (P). n. variety of sucking fish, similar to “`ŋopə”, relatively small, with an adhesive mouth facing the river floor (used to maintain a suction to stones) which will stick to the skin if pressed. See: buugap ‘stick by sucking’. foolish, of a man. See: `taŋaa ‘male idiot’; -`ŋaa...-`raa ‘no result’. n. mist. Usage: (P). See: ŋarsi ‘dew’. n. honeybee (most common variety). taŋik-tao n. bee; bee in general; bees of all varieties. See: taŋik taci ‘honeybee variety’; tao ‘honeybee variety’. taŋo nce. See: taŋo-`tarii ‘chirping insect variety’. n. variety of chirping See: `tarii ‘variety of taŋo-`tarii insect. insect’. tree fern. Immature, unfurled fronds which are medium in size are roasted and eaten as a vegetable. Traditionally used by shamans as a tool for charming away evil spirits. Syn: ərək-taɲi. n. Var: `tasi (P). n. crab. Var: tasi (P). `taci `tacin taŋəə `taŋgo adj. obese; massively fat. n. traditional Galo coat or Var: `tasin (P). n. variety of cane. Long, about the same size as “jəyɨɨ”. Used in weaving baskets and hats. vest, with embroidery around the lower section, to be worn by men or women alike. See: lalɨk ‘shirt’. `taci-`poolo ‘moon’. 1 Var: `tasi-`poolo (P). n. kneecap. See: `taci ‘crab’; `poolo `tacaa `tacak n. variety of wood-boring insect, similar to “tagik”. Var: `tasak (P). n. fibre, especially cotton. Properly refers to the fibre obtained from the fruit of a small, fibrous fruit-bearing tree, which may be spun into a strong fibre when dry, however is colloquially used to refer to any type of fibre, `taci-`poolo 2 n. tamarind-like fruit, inedible, forearm size, growing on a creeping plant, with extremely hard seeds. Outer skin cracks when ripe, dry colour, white flesh, found in deep jungle. See: `taci ‘crab’; `poolo ‘moon’. `tacup Var: `tasup (P). nce. variety of fly. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `tacup-`reeɲup 141 `tacup-`taɲup `taɲo ‘variety of fly’. `tajɨr `tacup-`taɲup Var: `tasup-`taɲup (P). n. variety of biting fly. Syn: `tacup-`reeɲup. See: `tacup ‘variety of fly’. `tacup-`reeɲup tacur taco variety of poisonous fly, shaped like a housefly. Syn: `tacup-`taɲup. n. Var: tasur (P). n. spittle; spit; variety of creeping bamboo, very small and unable to stand unsupported by another plant. Seeks host by creeping and twines over it. Used ceremonially in traditional religious practices. Arundinaria manii. n. `tajɨr-`jɨrlək saliva. n. ash, as from a fire or cigarette. Syn: `micco. Var: tasɨɨ (P). n. bacteria; extremely small or invisible insect, especially one which is presumed to be responsible for otherwise unaccountable-for destruction, such as tooth decay. Var: tasɨɨ-donam (P). n. tooth decay; bacterial infection in the teeth. See: tacɨɨ ‘bacteria’; n. variety of worked, feathered bamboo, used as an element of sacrificial altars. See: `tajɨr ‘variety of creeping bamboo’. n. last child. `taɲaa taɲi tacɨɨ 1 n. variety of insect found in bamboo, laying eggs, baked in leaves and eaten when mature and about thumb-sized. taɲi 2 nce. See: ərək-taɲi ‘tree fern’. tacɨɨ-donam `taɲi n. element of a loin loom, a set donam ‘eat’. `taji 1 n. variety of grass or reed growing near water which is gathered when in flower to make sweeping brooms. of sticks holding various types of string in place which enable flowers to be embroidered onto the cloth. Found immediately above the “`niikoo” and below the “`lootə”. `taɲup taɲum `Taji 2 name. name of a character in nce. See: `tacup-`taɲup ‘variety of biting fly’. Galo folklore. Counterpart to Taro; hapless adversary to Abo Tani. nce. See: taɲum-ɲuŋkoo-podoo ‘huge thorn’. `tajinam vt. believe; believe in the taɲum-ɲuŋkoo-podoo thorn; massive thorn. n. huge truth of what someone has said or is saying. `nun ard maadoo, `əmlaa `cin `taji kumaa! ‘You guys aren’t so clever, but yet you don’t believe us!’ `taɲek n. kind of biting insect, `taji-`rooɲo `tajuu n. n. algae. ‘variety of grass’. See: `taji living in relatively cold places, whose bite is not visible and does not affect one at first, but develops after some days. `taɲo juvenile, 1 n. tiger, in a familiar, mildly tadpole; undeveloped frog. personified or ritualized sense. See: `hoɲo ‘tiger’. `taɲo 2 n. pus. 142 `taɲo donam -tap `taɲo donam `taɲək tatii n. skin infection. See: donam ‘’eat’’. n. Job’s tear millet. See: tatii-naanii n. sorghum. See: `tatum-`beelum up (I don’t want to hear that)!’ `talaa `ju. ‘Let’s listen (to it).’ 2 • obey; listen to someone and Coix ‘grain lachryma. nce. variety’. agree with them; act according to the wishes expressed by someone else. tatii-naanii `tatum nce. `tapaa vt. hear. `tapaa kumaa. ‘I can’t hear at all/anymore.’ See: -`paa ‘get; attain’. vt. concentrate on what one is hearing; understand and remember what is said. `tagap `laamaa. ‘I can’t concentrate on what I’m hearing.’ ‘spider’. `tagap `tatum-`beelum Var: `tasum-`beerum (P). spider. n. tatɨk tatək n. frog. n. variety of ornament, a disc `tacen of around 2 cm in diameter made from conch shells. vt. understand what one hears. ŋo `yoo `tacen `taren maa! ‘I can’t understand a blasted thing!’ n. 1 • human `tattər tado tadoo n. sufficient effort; one’s all; one’s best. nce. See: tado-molek ‘variety n. tanii being. Homo the sapiens. 2 • humanity; humankind; of insect’. Var: orb-takoo (P). human race. name. nickname of “Rɨnii”, a.k.a. Abo Tani. Legendary progenitor of humankind, and particularly of the Tani tribespeople. See: Abo Tanii ‘The Father of Humankind’. mahaseer, a variety of river fish. Tor putitora. `tadok n. stone bead ornaments of great value and often great antiquity, given or, ideally, handed down to a woman by elders at wedding time. n. variety of insect, `tano Var: `taɲo (P, L). n. 1 • snail. 2 • lime; lime powder; powdered tado-molek tador about thumb-sized. n. variety of reed, traditionally used in rituals as well as in constructing house surfaces such as ceilings and walls. Pseudostachyum polymusphum. n. earthworm. Syn: `dorkaa. irritant, traditionally derived by reducing snail shells to ashes, dissolving the results in water, and eventually obtaining a paste with the irritant qualities of lime. See: `tahɨr-`tano ~ `tahɨr-`taɲo ‘snail’. -tap `tador `tanam vt. 1 • listen to something; hear something. `talɨɨ maa! ‘Shut vs:adv. overturned. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is overturned as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `tuutap `tokee! ‘Push it such that it falls over!’ 143 tapam tabin-`koorin tapam `tapar tapii n. ice; snow. n. dandruff. `tapek tapen n. leech. n. variety of long grass or reed with white, cotton-like flowers. nce. See: `tapii-tamaa ‘grass’. n. variety n. bat, in general; flying fox. Chiroptera. nce. n. See: tapuu-`tapen `tapen `tapii ‘mould’. tapii-tao-minnam (1) tapen-penruu den. bat cave; bat of fish-trapping system, a barrier constructed of boulders and grasses at a narrowing point in a river, toward which fish are driven and trapped in “maamo-ɨdɨr” baskets. See: tapii ‘grass variety’; tao ‘thorn’; minnam (1) ‘chase’. `tapoo of river fish, whitish, small, about finger-length to half-hand length. Danio spp. 1 2 n. variety `Tapoo `tapop name. name of a Lare Galo `tapii-tamaa `tapik village in central West Siang district. variety of tall grass, bundled and dried and used for thatching. Rarely used by Galo, but commonly used by Hills Miri. n. n. grass, in general. See: tamaa ‘creeper’. n. variety of insect which casts dust, by shooting it out or leaving on the surface when burrowing. n. shuttle or bobbin of a loin `tapin tapɨɨ loom, a stick with thread wrapped around it which is tossed between two layers of cloth. Found immediately above the “`gəkoo”, and below the “kobdaa”. nce. moss. Usage: usu. occurs in expressive compound. See: tapɨɨ-tamɨɨ ‘moss’. n:expr. variety of moss tapɨɨ-tamɨɨ or lichen, used as a herb. Grows along and close to the ground, with pine-like foliage. tapuu tapuu 1 n. flute. n. tapə tapər n. pumpkin; squash. Syn: talar. n. variety of nut. n. bedbug. Cimex spp. ace. See: tayum-tabar whitey; white See: tapuu-`tapen ‘mould’. 2 one. tabaa tabar tabin tapuu-`tapen n. mould; fuzzy, multicoloured bacteria often found on old food. See: tapuu ‘mildew’. n. variety of house-dwelling termite; similar to but smaller than “taaŋin”; living in dry wood and emerging with wings in springtime. See: tabin-`koorin ‘termite (mound-building)’. n. adj. mouldy. ‘white one’. tapum n. terrestrial or aquaborne insect; non-flying insect. tapum-`taloo n. insect, in general; insects of all varieties. tabin-`koorin mound-building variety of termite. 144 `tabum tamo-nappaa See: tabin termite’. ‘house-dwelling go ‘two flat sides’. See: `atam ‘side’. `tabum tabum n. smallpox. tamaa n. variety of bamboo. Very smooth, not more than 2” in diameter, used for binding “taək” on roofs and making “eken” and “`igin” baskets, as well as bamboo floor mats. Bambusa khasiana. n. variety of bamboo, no larger than three centimetres in diameter, with close branching points and tending to bend off rather than grow perfectly straight. Strong; traditionally used by Galo as fishing poles as well as in traditional religious ceremonies. Phyllostachy manii. n. creeper. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `tapii-tamaa ‘grass’; tarə-tamaa ‘creeper’. nce. n. variety of palm. Roots small and gathered close to base of trunk. Trunk unfolds in layers like a banana tree. Leaves like small Chinese fans, serrated at end. Wood is used by Galo for construction. Outer pith of bark is scraped off and used as an excellent tinder. Can grow to 30m in the jungle, although those grown in Galo gardens are rarely above 6-7m. See: `caamak ‘”`tamak” pith’. n. `tamak tabo `tabə tabə sugarcane. officinarum. n. snake, in general. Saccharum tamii millet. n. See: `amo-tamii ‘crops’. tamii-`jesi tabə-dumii n. worm snake; variety of burrowing, poisonous snake, in appearance like a giant worm, believed to have two heads and no anus. See: tabə ‘snake’. vi. overturn; keel or fall variety of grasshopper or cricket, small in size, living only in millet fields. See: tamii ‘millet’. Var: tamur. n. betelnut; areca nut. Areca catechu. Source: n. husk and skin tamul tabnam Assamese. over, as a tree or a bicycle or of a person when drunk. tabyəə ‘grow/lean to the side or off-kilter, as of bamboo’. vt. overturn something, as from tamul-mulkuk `Tamo of betelnut. See: tamul ‘betelnut’. name. Tamo, name of a spirit. Sacrificial altar to Tamo is formed as a long, alligator-like effigy with legs dangling from a length of bamboo. upside-down to rightside-up, or vice versa. tapkup ‘turn upside-down, as when turning over a leaf’. tamo-nappaa `tam- clfr. Classifier for flat surfaces and some objects with flat surfaces. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `atam `tamɲi exit point or dilution point of a drift of fish poison, an element of “`hibə-rɨɨnam” poison-based fishing technique. The lower point of a drift of poison, at which poisoned fish are caught. n. 145 `tamor `Taro `tamor tamɨɨ tamə tamə tamə n. ringworm; `tamor `gəduu. ringworm.’ n. moss; lichen. tinea. ‘He’s `bɨɨ got See: `yɨrken ‘honey made from a “`tayɨr” bee’. -`tar 1 n. variety of plant used for poisoning fish. 2 n. variety of torrent catfish. Amblyceps spp. vs:adv. split apart down the middle. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is split down the middle as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. pull or split apart, as pulling apart a pair of tongs by grasping the ends and tugging apart. `giitar 3 n. tin, as a raw material. `tamə n. eclipse; lunar or solar eclipse. `tamə ɲomnam ‘eclipse’. See: ɲomnam ‘swallow’. n. variety of flying insect, edible, cockroach-like, with a sting, found in deep jungle. n. juvenile “taməə” n. mature “taməə” tarak taməə adj. out-of-control; haywire; hyperactive, especially of a man. `bɨɨ maaji `bə tarak `nago `na. ‘He’s a real hard one to handle.’ `tarii taməə-`məəci insect. n. variety of edible insect, living in rock beds, eaten in winter (Assamese gandi-puk). Var: `taik (P). n. variety of insect, shaped like a slug or leech with a larger head, potentially dangerous to ingest. n. mosquito. n. ant, in general. taməə-`məənə insect. `tarik `tamnam tayaa vt. hang something, as a poster or picture. nce. variety of fly. Usage: usu. taruu `taruk occurs in compound. See: tahuu-tayaa ‘fruit fly’. `taruk-`diicup `tayup tayum n. variety of caterpillar with stinging spines. adj. damp. adj. n. anthill; mound formed at the entrance to an underground ant colony. See: `taruk ‘ant’; `diicup ‘earth ring’. n. ant nest; nest tayum-tabar tayɨɨ mildewy. tayum-tabardu ‘It’s mildewy.’ See: tayum ‘damp’. `taruk-`rukpum of ants (generally, red ants) found in trees. See: `taruk ‘ant’; `rukpum ‘ant mound’. nce. fly. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tayɨɨ-tamaa ‘fly’. n. `tarum `taree `Taro n. scorpion. tayɨɨ-tamaa `tayɨr fly; housefly; garbage fly. n. variety of tree, the pleasantly and powerfully scented seed from which is used for a masala-like spice. ace. non-uniform, in colour. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tagam-`taree ‘pockmarked’. name. legendary rival of Abo Tanii and progenitor of the race of demons in traditional mythology. Counterpart to 146 `tarɨɨ taləə-kodee “`Taji”. `talap `tarɨɨ n. variety of edible winged insect, spawned in rivers. Will attack fruited, immature rice plants and suck out the liquid of non-formed fruit by piercing through the shell with its snout and sucking it out. May be fried and eaten. wild onion, a thin, green variety with a small, thin bulb; green onion; spring onion; scallion. Allium spp. 2 Var: `diilap (P). n. talar talii n. pumpkin; squash. Syn: tapə. n. flea, in general. Siphonaptera. talii-liihup tarɨk n. precise amount; precise extent. tarɨk `cəə go `jilaa `kaa; `aɲɲ `ə `dopɨɨ hago. ‘Give exactly the right amount; enough for two to eat.’ adj. correct; right; precise; exact. n. fleas’ nest; nest of fleas. talii-liihup ə `na! ‘It’s become a fleas’ nest!’ See: talii ‘flea’; liihup ‘flea’s nest’. n. wall plank; solid, hewn (not planed) wooden plank used in wall construction, generally made from wood of the “benji” tree. n. variety of plant, used to make “`raraa” back-pieces. taluu `hɨgɨ tarɨk `cəə `nago. ‘This one’s exactly the right kind.’ mm, tarɨk `duu. ‘Yes, that’s right.’ talee talo tarə 1 n. strip of bamboo, usually about a half-meter long, used for weaving baskets or mats. See: `peecəə-tarə ‘bamboo strips’. tarə 2 nce. injury. Usage: rare, possibly archaic; usu. occurs in compound. See: uun-tarə ‘wound’. n. Asiatic snake head, variety of fish found in ponds and, more rarely, in rivers, slippery-backed, blackish, some with white underbellies, up to forearm-length. Channa spp. nce. See: taloo-`baaboo `tarə taloo `taloo n. thorn-less variety of cane, ‘swing’. n. male slut; man who sleeps around freely with as many women as possible. n. mostly used for house construction, but may also be used in weaving sheaths. Found mainly in mountains; generally not found in foothills and plains. taloo-`baaboo swing. swing; rope `tarək Var: lagrək (P). n. support ring for an archer, made from “tarə” cane. talɨɨ talɨɨ 1 n. variety of cardamom. nce. See: `ruuci-talɨɨ ‘water 2 tarə-tamaa `tarnam `talap n. creeper; creeping plant; vine; twining plant. See: `tarə ‘cane’; tamaa ‘creeper’. vt. file; split or separate coming from the ears’. taləə n. 1 • sky. 2 • weather. taləə al `duu. ‘The something, as into piles when organizing or counting out. 1 weather is good.’ taləə-kodee n. snot. n. climate; weather conditions of a particular place; environment of a particular area. 147 `tasi məətin See: taləə ‘sky’; kodee ‘soil’. `tasi `taso n. variety of tall grass, used for from a point, as a butterfly or hummingbird from a flower. 2 • bite, thatching. n. small variety of wildcat, possibly marbled cat. Felis marmorata. name. name of a Galo clan of a point-mouthed insect such as a mosquito or leech. taruu ə `ŋom `tiiduu. ‘The mosquitoes are biting me.’ adj. sweet. Tasoo tahuu tiihir tiK- found primarily in the central part of West Siang district. nce. fly variety. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tahuu-tayaa ‘fruit fly’. n. vinegar fly. Variety of fly often found in and around containers of fermenting rice or bamboo. Drosophilia spp. clfqr. Classifier for bushels (40 by standard) of large-sized leaves, such as fan palm leaves. tahuu-tayaa Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. tikkə ‘six bushels (of leaves)’. See: atik ‘bushel’. -tik...-rik tahuu-miibuu tahum tahɨɨ n. variety of larva, pale green in colour, living underground in nests. Var: tasum (P). n. shellfish, in general, though usually a crawdad or river prawn. vs:advsr. flailingly. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in a flailing manner, as an animal reeling and flailing in its death agonies hitik hirik ‘flailing in death agonies, as a sacrificed cow’. `tiggap n. variety of oblong lime-like citrus fruit particularly common in Assam. n. snail. Var: `tahɨr-`tano. n. vt. 1 • dab with a finger or brush, as when painting. `nom `tiggəə kaa. ‘I’ve dabbed it on you (as lime or paint on the skin).’ 2 • roll, as when rolling up a `tahɨr carpet or leaf; pinch. `tahɨr-`taɲo `tiggap -tin vt. paint a painting. snail, particularly a land snail as opposed to water snail. See: `tahɨr ‘snail’; `taɲo ‘pus’. vs:adv. with trust; with confidence; with faith; with Gram: Manner suffix belief. indicating that the subject has faith, trust or confidence in terms of the action indicated by the verb. The object of trust/confidence may be a person whose honesty is in question, as well as an inanimate entity (such as a tool) whose capacity to function well is in question. `tahək tiikoo protruding mole (on the skin). n. variety of n. handle of an umbrella. satii-tiikoo ‘umbrella handle’. 1 tiinam vi. be well-seasoned; for foods which should be sweet, ‘sweet enough’; for foods which should be salty, ‘salty enough.’ məətin tiinam 2 vt. 1 • suck or drink nectar vt. have faith in (someone’s ability to pull something off). 148 tinnam (2) -`tuu tinnam (2) vi. roll or be rolled up, `humtuu vi. squat. `bɨɨ `humtuu as a carpet or mat; wrinkle or be wrinkled, as aged skin. vt. roll something up, as a carpet `laa `duuduu squatting/sitting squatting position.’ in ‘He’s a or mat. tu 1 • Focusing or emphatic particle. Gram: Marks a noun as one to whom attention should be drawn. Source: Assamese. Ab Tanii tu pcl. vs:nzr. terminus; place of termination. Gram: Nominalizer deriving a noun indicating the place (in space) where an action is stopped, or the point (in time) when an action is stopped. `ŋok kaakaa ku! ‘But Abo Tani was watching!’ use of the focusing/emphatic particle indicating that the information contained in the sentence is clear, obvious, or self-evident. `ɲibbo `tajɨr `bəəduu tu. ‘A shaman carries creeping bamboo, as you know.’ 2 • Sentence-final `goktuu ‘the place where I stopping calling you’. -tuu all night long. Gram: 1 vs:adv. Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb occurs all night. vi. fall all night (as rain). `otuu -tuu tu- pfx. Feminine diminutive prefix to the name root of a female human individual. Usage: Generally used in a familiar, semi-jocular way as among friends or, less often but possibly, by a senior towards a junior. tutər ‘friendly/jocular nickname of a woman named Kentər’. 2 vs:adv. divide on width. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in a stick-like entity being divided into two or more sections crossways, e.g. of a bamboo pole, sliced crosswise into mini-poles or sections. dɨrtuu `doona. ‘It’s broken (of a lamp which had a patched top).’ ŋo birii `əm tɨɨtuu kaa. ‘I’ve smoked half the cigarette.’ vs:nzr. midpoint. Gram: Nominalizer deriving a concrete or temporal nominal with the sense ‘half’ or ‘piece’ of an object cut along crossways or along the width, or ‘midpoint’ of the duration of an event. `am `əə `gatuu kai nam -`tuu cease; stop; down. 1 vs:adv. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject ceases to perform an action or turns downward, as when halting motion. `tutuu ‘stop the motion of something by kicking it’. `tɨtuu dotuu vt. set something down. `tɨtuu `tokee! ‘Set it down!’ vt. cease eating, despite that some food remains, and one may not yet be full. vi. land, of a plane or `laakaa toku da. ‘Again get the big hacked-off bamboo.’ Tanii ku `it bartuu `əm `ap kuəmə. ‘Now Tani stopped in the middle of his chanting...’ See: -ci ‘divide (on length)’. -`tuu `dəətuu bird. 2 vs:asp. has been; have been. Gram: Continuous aspectual suffix, marking an event which has been perfected (finished) in the past, but whose effects are still felt, or whose 149 -tuu tuurəə resultant state is still ongoing, as when having planted a tree which remains planted and growing, or when having put on some clothing which is still being word. Often (but not always) translates English Present Perfect (has/have been). `ejj quarrelling. `tuutap ‘Push it over!’ something else. `tokee! 2 • prop something up against 3 • secure something, so that e.g. `əm `rɨktuu. ‘The clothes have been washed (and they remain clean).’ `lɨgmen `tuunam `əna. ‘We just planted it (corn which is still growing) for the heck of it.’ `kətuu ku. ‘(The rope) has become twisted (and remains so).’ it will not fall or spill (generally, by pushing or propping it against something stable). `igin `əm `tuut `kee. ‘Secure the basket (so it won’t fall and spill).’ `tuunam tuunam 2 vt. dive, as into a river. ŋo `hill `əm `tuuduu. ‘I’m diving into the pool.’ vt. 1 • survey an area from -tuu vs:adv. steep; steeply. Gram: Manner suffix used with motion verbs indicating that the surface or terrain over which the motion takes place is steep. 3 `caatuu vi. steep, of a road; steep road. bədaa maaji `caatuu `duu. ‘The road’s mighty steep going up.’ vi. sit upright. a distance, as with a video camera; scan or stare intently at a landscape from a distance. `mook `am `tuukaa to. ‘Scan that area.’ 2 • shine on something, of a beam of light, especially of a torch. Usage: recent sense extension not duutuu `tuukoo n:rel. lower side; southern side. `təhi `na! Haina `tuukoo `təhi `na! ‘It’s up there! It’s up there, just below China!’ found in all `Laree areas. tors `əm `oodoo `bə `tuum kaato. ‘Make the torch shine into the distance.’ tuubə `tuutə adj. majority; relatively largest portion. May be used to reference a majority of people as well as other things. `tuut `yaana `memmaa `duu. ‘Most people don’t say it that way.’ See: atuu ‘portion’. n:rel. upper side; northern n. other end of a long object; opposite end of a long object. `əə tuubə ‘the other end of a bamboo pole (which one is carrying, e.g.)’. adj. minority; smaller portion of a group. tuuyaa-`yaana ‘the relatively smaller portion’. name. Tuuri, name of the tuuyaa Tuurɨ tuudum side. `ŋok namm ə tuudum `peeləə `yaabə `dooduu. ‘My house is a bit further north.’ `tuunam 1 • push something 1 vt. with force, as with the aim of overturning it, or when popping someone in the chest when sixth entity in the universe, generated by “`hintuu” and progenitor of “Rɨnii”, a.k.a. Abo Tanii (the progenitor of mankind), as well as of “Rɨkii”, or Takii, the progenitor of demons. tuurəə n. end, as of a stick. `əg tuurəə `bolo `nok `peeləə `ogo 150 Tukkaa -tum `doom `tokee. ‘That end down there, make it face your end.’ tuppɨk Tukkaa tukko name. blackie (nickname). protruding, of the forehead (as a gorilla or a caveman). adj. Var: tupko. n. forehead. -tup...-ci tukko-`ləpaa tuktuk `tunam `tunam n. head to toe; all over. See: tukko ‘forehead’; `ləpaa ‘shin’. n. motorcycle. vs:advs. entangled. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something becomes disturbed, impeded or entangled by way of the action indicated by the verb. `ŋom 1 vt. garland someone; place a flower wreath around someone’s neck. aktup akcə da. ‘I got hooked on and entangled by something.’ See: -tup ‘blocked’. tubnam knit a garment. 2 vt. Usage: Properly refers to the process of knitting a garment from beginning preparation to finished product, not simply the activity of knitting per se. More commonly used in Pugo. vt. 1 • head-butt; smash into, collide with or bump into something head-on; barge through head-first. `hott `ə `naakum `əm `tubyaa kaaku. ‘The elephant destroyed the granary by slamming his head into it.’ 2 • slam a tool down or against tunam kick. Usage: Properly refers to an instance of kicking with force, as though to cause damage to something. vt. vs:adv. block; bump into. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the actor is blocked by or bumps into something, as when moving. ŋo something else. takee `əm `tubmɨk `tokee. ‘Smash the ginger into pulp (with a mortar and pestle).’ transfer a solid (non-liquid) entity into a space/container by shovelling, e.g. sand onto a truck, or when ladling food onto a plate. kodee `əm `tublɨk `tokee. ‘Shovel the soil into (the truck bed).’ 4 • comb 3 • shovel; -tup `rapkom gətup kaa. ‘I bumped my head on the fireplace shelving.’ `ɨrtup blocked sprouting, as a plant. vi. vi. from dəktup hinam stub one’s toe when. `ɨlɨɨ `ogo dəktup `hidee `laa. ‘You might stub your toe on that stone (near you).’ hair. adum ə dumpər-dummər `duuku, tups `tokee. ‘Your hair is all curly and tangled, comb it.’ cast a ballot in an election. 5 • vote, tubbin at all. adj. bald; without any hair tupko Var: tukko. n. forehead. Usage: more common in Pugo, but adj. have a bald spot. `tublok -tum also used by some `Laree. adj. have a receding hairline; of a hairline, to recede. vs:adv. closed. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is tuptar 151 cɨktum `motee put into a closed state as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as a door or a window. See: `tumpə ‘dry land’; ɲigam ‘hunter’. cɨktum close a door or window. ərap ə cittum `duu. ‘The door is closed.’ vt. vt. stop up a container `tumpə-lukə tumbo `tumraa turgɨɨ n. tomato. See: `tumpə ‘dry land’. n. widow; widower. `hɨɨtum `tum- with leaves. clfqr. Classifier for clumps, or n. dense jungle. Usage: (P). See: yamdɨɨ ‘dense jungle (L)’. objects that have been rolled up into a ball or clump. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: `atum ‘clump’. n. roof-post of a Galo house; crossbeam. vi. be alive; be surviving. 1 `hɨgɨ turbəə `duu. ‘This one’s still alive (the other one’s dead).’ turnam turnam `tumcik n. variety of small-sized bear, known for living in wild “koluu” plantain groves. Sometimes called “koluu-`tumcik”. `tumnam vt. flood; rush, of a large, flooding body of water. `iss `ə `tumloo `duu. ‘The water’s flooding down .’ vt. vt. prop something up or 2 support it from below, as when a pillar or stake is positioned under the baseboards of a leaning house. ŋo cɨkc `əm `turduu. ‘I’m supporting the wall from below.’ ace. kick out the legs to stretch them. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `tuhor-`ləyor ‘stretch the legs’. adj. stretch out the `tuhor `tumnam fold, as paper. Usage: also applies to the traditional practice of folding up corpses for burial purpose. `ŋun `Galoo `lo himaa `əm `tumduu. ‘We Galo fold our corpses.’ vt. close off; imprison, as `tuhor-`ləyor legs. -tee tumnam a prisoner in a jail. patək lo `bɨəm tumkaa. ‘He’s been imprisoned in that jail.’ vs:adv. burned. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a burn, sting, welt, burning sensation or freeze-burn results from the action indicated by the verb. vt. burn; cause a surface injury from burning. `əmm `ə `gutee kaa. ‘The fire burned me.’ vt. burn by way of eating, as a strong chilli pepper. `yaluk go dotee hikaa `pə. ‘He seems to have burned himself by eating a chilli.’ vt. make a burn on something, not necessarily be `gutee `tumnə nce. leaves of a vegetable marrow squash. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `patum-`tumnə ‘vegetable marrow leaves’. n. bearskin. n. dry land; dry area. n. ranger; expert dotee `tumpin `tumpə dry `tumpə-ɲigam `motee land/plains hunter. 152 `teemaa tennam fire (though possibly). from over there!’ `teemaa teelo n. button, as on a shirt. hamten vt. step on something. n. variety of belt or waist-let made of strung-together bell-like cups dotted with millet seeds, worn by the men of several different Tani tribes, including Galo, Bori, Bokar and Minyong, particularly during festive dances. `kemmə `yok, hamten `laa atok. ‘Don’t let it get away, step on it.’ -`ten vs:adv. repair; fix. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is repaired by way of the action indicated by the verb. vt. correct someone’s vt. repair; fix. `koobaa `ə `menten speech. -tek protruding; partly visible; partly disclosed. Gram: vs:adv. Result suffix indicating that something is partially, not fully, disclosed, visible, or protruding from an area. `moten `moten `duubə `rɨduu ku. ‘The ladder has come to need repairing.’ rotek `teŋkur vt. stick out the tongue n:time. 1 • six days hence; `tenee n:time. 1 • five days hence; such that only the tip is visible. six days speaking. from the time of five days from the time of speaking. 2 • five years hence; five years from the time of speaking. 2 • six years hence; six years from `tentəə n. trajectory; direct path, the time of speaking. `teɲci Var: `tensi (P). n. afterbirth, i.e. the solid remaining to be passed following baby’s delivery, which midwives will help pass using warm water, then bury in the ground. n:time. six years hence; six years from the time of speaking. plane or trajectory as projected by an object with face/directedness. `ŋok nam `tentəə `lo `bɨɨk namm ə `dooduu. ‘His house is on the same trajectory as mine (measured from the face of the house).’ adj. be located on a common `teɲjur -ten vs:adv. onto; atop; supplant; impose. Gram: Directional suffix to a transitive verb indicating that the subject is moved atop or onto the object. May also have a metaphorical sense of supplanting or imposing. trajectory. dooɲ ə `tentəə `duuku. ‘The sun is at its apex/is directly overhead (spoken at noon, when the sun is on the same trajectory as a human head directed upward).’ tennam `menten vt. impose oneself on someone else’s conversation, as from a distance. `hog `menten `yookaa! ‘Don’t impose yourself/your conversation topic over ours vt. 1 • suspend; hang by fixing to a surface (rather than by a hook). 2 • set an “ujuu” spring action trap to catch small animals. ŋo ujuu `tent `bə `indak `na. ‘I’m going to set a spring action trap.’ 153 `tenloo Toopo `tenloo n:time. seventh moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-June to mid-July. Traditionally identified as the time when cicadas change their tune. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of July. functioning to request or command a second person (the addressee) to perform an action. Gram: The beneficiary of the requested/commanded event must be someone other than the speaker. -to 1 vs:adv. for the first time. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb happens for the first time. `rɨt `bə `rɨnam `ə `əgəm `laakaa to. ‘Get that one for a minute.’ `saa go moj `tokee. ‘Make him some tea.’ See: -`laa ‘Imperative suffix (speaker-directed)’. `məəɲɨr `empaa. ‘It feels strange to do something for the first time.’ `hɨm ager `əm ŋo `rɨt `bə `rɨduu. ‘I’m doing this work for the first time.’ -too vs:adv. topple something and cause the contents to spill out. -to 2 Var: -t. vs:asp. 1 • Perfective aspectual suffix. Gram: indicates a relatively punctual, fully rounded event, i.e. one whose beginning and endpoint are viewed as “all-wrapped-up”, past, and not bearing any further on the present. Gram: Result suffix to an activity verb, indicating that an action results in a container being toppled, and its contents being spilled out (especially, a toppled glass). `motoo dar ne! ‘I nearly toppled (the glass)!’ tooko hook, as for hanging 1 n. something on the wall. tooko tootii `ŋunuk omee `ogo, `ŋun yalɨɨ nam gəto. ‘In our youth, we wore red (but we don’t anymore).’ `həmbə `rɨto nammə `na: ‘It happened like this:’. 2 • Conjunct perfective suffix. Gram: sense of the Perfective suffix occurring only in verbs suffixed by Direct/Experienced Perfective “-baa” or Action nominalization in “-nam”. In a declarative sentence, indicates that a first person subject (the speaker) performs the action indicated by the verb. In an interrogative sentence, indicates that the subject is second person (the addressee). Cannot be used with third person subjects. See: -gee variety of edible leaf 2 n. which tastes like spinach. nce. See: `paa-tootii-`roorii ‘daybreak’. tootin n. warning. toonam vt. scoop rice, as when preparing to serve. `kaju, `bɨɨ acin `toop da! ‘Come on, she’s served out the rice!’ `toonam vi. spray. `iss `ə aruu `lok `toobuu `duu. ‘Water is spraying through the hole.’ vt. spray. ŋo `iss `əm `toorə. ‘I’ll spray the water.’ Toopo ‘Disjunct perfective suffix’. no acin dot `baree? ‘Have you eaten yet?’ ŋo dot nammə `bəree domaa tonam ə `bəree? ‘Have I eaten or not?’ vs:mod. name. 1 • Toopo, son of Niito. Third in the Galo lineage. Imperative suffix, 2 • Toopo Gonə, a legendary character of Galo folklore believed to have been swallowed up by a stone located somewhere in mid-West Siang District while en route to her in-laws’ house. 154 -tok -tom 3 • star, in a poetic or ceremonial sense. -tok Imperative suffix (non-speaker-directed, insistent). vs:mod. Gram: Insistive form of the Imperative suffix in “-to”; forms a relatively rude or abrupt imperative, appropriate for use by seniors to juniors, or when angry. acin dotok! aɲɲii go `togɨɨ boolo, rɨkk `əm `paarə. ‘If we go down just a bit, we’ll find the field.’ See: `iinam ‘descend’. -totii adjs:der. very; utterly; fully. Gram: Adjectival intensifying suffix ‘Eat your food (to a child)!’ `namlii totii ‘extremely new house’. horii totii `bə ‘utterly straight’. `tokə pos. via (by way of), of (from `tonam or belonging to) or in the general direction of somewhere or something upward, upriver, or northward of the place of speaking. allo `tok aruu `bə `uulen `laa. ‘The salt was coming out from up there as a hole (in the earth).’ something which is in one’s grasp, as someone’s arm; drop, as from a height. vt. 2 • leave someone, as a wife or 1 • release `tokkə pos. from somewhere upward, northward or upriver of the place of speaking. `tokkə `iiləə-`iiləə, `iiləə-`iiləə, `iiləə-`iiləə...‘From up there we came down, down, down, down, down...’ n. 1 • mithun sacrifice in husband; quit someone. `bəkkom `tomaa, `ɲaŋkom `tomaa. ‘You can’t leave your first path; you can’t leave your first wife.’ (Galo proverb). 3 • concede a point; submit to or `toguu agree to go along with a decision, as one reached by a village council which had been against one’s wishes; drop a lawsuit; release a claim. ŋo kodee `əm `topak jikaa ku. ‘I released my claim over the land.’ which the ritual code of “`hɨɨmaa-tagnam” is carried-out, generally as an observation of a particularly important occasion. 2 • festival; especially, a wedding tonam party. vt. wait for someone or something. Usage: usu. occurs as “toraa”. ŋo hodum `əm `toduu. ‘I’m waiting for the barking deer (in ambush).’ vt. wait for someone or something. `ŋok toraa nam ɲii ə no. ‘You’re the one I’ve been waiting for.’ tognam tognam 1 vi. of a hen, to cluck as toraa when looking for a mate. 2 vi. move down; descend, but not necessarily reach a goal. Usage: Rare and poss. archaic and/or an Eastern Tani loan. In Galo, generally occurs with Result suffix “-`ɨɨ” ‘downward/low result’. `toraa -tom vt. wait for someone in vain; fail in waiting for someone. `togɨɨ vi. descend; move down. vs:val. show; demonstrate. Gram: Derivational suffix with indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in or amounts to 155 kaatom `tɨɨcɨr an act of the subject showing the object the way to do something, or that the action involves a teaching of the object speaking. `tolo `jaa maa, `bolo `jaa maa. ‘Not so far up there, not so far down there.’ kaatom potom vte. show someone `tolo `kə something. vt. teach, as in school. `mentom vt. teach; show someone by telling them how. aɲɲii go `mentom da, aɲɲii go `cenda. ‘Teach a little, learn a little.’ tor- clfr. Classifier for bottles. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `torken, `torɲi, torum...‘one Var: `tol kə. dem.pos. from or via (by way of) somewhere or something upward, upriver, or northward of the place of speaking. `korum `tol `kə, `Daarɨɨ `tokkə, `ŋun `hog `iila. ‘In the old times...we came down to here from up there, from up in Daring.’ `tol `kə `iinaa `nam, `Borii `ə `cinnam. ‘They’re simply people who came down from up there, the Borii as well.’ vt. agree to a proposal. acam `tolɨk `tollo bottle, two bottles, three bottles...’ See: botor ‘bottle’. `gonna `tolɨk `duu. ‘A subset of them support (the idea).’ dem.pos. there, to, toward, or tornam vi. 1 • be hard; be strong. `mɨɨ `ŋom `toryaa doo. ‘S/he’s stronger than me.’ 2 • exert strength or force when at a location far away and upward, upriver or to the north of the place of speaking. applying oneself to an activity. See: attor ‘firm; hard; strong’. -to...-kə `tornam vt. drape, as when drying clothes. Gram: Properly refers to an Var: -t...-k. vs:advs. for the very first time. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that an action happens for the very first time `hɨm instance in which an entire sheetlike object is spread to its full extent and draped over a line, i.e. without overlapping or being bunched-up in parts. `gaan `hɨm ŋo `tat `tak `bə `taduu. ‘I’m listening to this song for the first time.’ See: -to ‘for the first time’; -kə ‘abortively’. `tɨar -`tolaa Var: -`t la. vs:mod. Imperative suffix (light). Gram: Light/softened form of the Imperative in “-to” al `bə int `laa `dei! ‘Go safely (bye bye)!’ dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location very far away and upward, upriver or to the north of the place of speaking. vi. peer, with the palm of the hand held perpendicular to the brow, as to see far into the distance. `tɨar `laa kaat `kee. ‘Peer up there.’ clfr. Classifier for herds, flocks, or packs of animals, including cattle, dogs, and chickens. Gram: tɨɨ- `toluu `tolo dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location upward, upriver or to the north of the place of Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. hoə ətɨɨ ‘herd of cattle’. Syn: tɨr-. `tɨɨcɨr Var: `tɨsin (P). n. clitoris. 156 `tɨɨtə tɨr- `tɨɨtə adj. majority of a group of in its final death throes.’ people; the greater portion of a group of people. `tɨɨtə-`yaanə `həm `mendu: ‘Most (people) say it like this:’. See: atɨɨ ‘group’. tɨkɨp disturbed. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tɨkɨp-takap ‘disturbed’. ace. adj:expr. disturbed or tɨɨnam vt. imbibe, i.e. drink or adj. drunk. tɨkɨp-takap smoke something. tɨɨkum `tɨɨken tɨɨtuu `duuku `laree? drunk or what?’ no tɨɨkum ‘Are you annoyed in the course of carrying out some task because of an insufficiency of light or space. tɨkə n. contract; contract basis, as adj. delicious to drink or smoke. `nok birii ə `tɨɨken `ə! ‘Your cigarettes taste great!’ n. half-smoked cigarette; remaining portion of a partially-smoked cigarette. biri tɨɨtuəm jilaake. ‘Give me (your) half-smoked cigarette.’ for a plot of land given and worked on loan. Source: Assamese. `ɲipak `əm rɨkk `əm tɨkə `bə jirə. ‘I’ll give the land to the non-hill-tribal on loan.’ `tɨkpum grapes. n. bunch; cluster, as of vt. jerk; tug quickly. tɨgnam tɨŋɨr tɨɨpak tɨɨrɨk n. snack to be served with drinks. Syn: dopak. nce. welcome or meet by drinking. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: dorɨk-tɨɨrɨk ‘bridal gifts’. adj. thirsty. n. variety of river fish, up to about forearm length, with stubby head, frequently caught when net-fishing. Labeo pangusia. nce. See: lakcəə-`tɨtə `tɨtə ‘fingertip’. `tɨɨlɨɨ `tɨɨpok tɨɨbak `tɨɨmə tɨɨlaa `tɨɨloo -tɨk tɨnam n. vaginal growth; extra muscle growing from the vagina, as a kind of tumor. n. vaginal lesion. n. female public hair. n. vaginal fluid. n. female pelvic bone. vt. 1 • touch. təksɨɨ ə `ŋom tɨtee kaa. ‘The kettle burned me (by touching my skin; that’s why I have this scar).’ 2 • pick or pick up something relatively small. `bɨɨ `tɨt `duu. ‘He’s going to pick it up.’ or place something somewhere. tɨcɨk hinam ‘to shield the eyes from the sun using the palm of the hand, as when squinting’. `tɨtuu `tokee! ‘Put/set it down!’ 3 • put vs:adv. jerkingly; uncontrollably. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action denoted by the verb happens in a jerking or uncontrollably manner. Usually occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-tɨk...-rɨk”. porok ə tutɨk turɨk tɨr- `duu. ‘The chicken is kicking out clfr. Classifier for herds, flocks, or packs of animals, including cattle, dogs, and chickens. More rarely, may also be used to classify other types of group, or 157 -tɨr `təəkoo-`təəloo groups in general. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. motion. `motəə `tɨrɲi tɨrum go `molaa `jukaa. ‘Let’s separate (ourselves) up into two or three groups.’ Syn: tɨɨ-. -tɨr vs:adv. broken. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an object is ‘broken’ by the subject in terms of the action indicated by the verb. Typically applies to objects with some length, as a stick rather than a glass. tutɨr vt. strike something or someone by chance/unknowingly/without intention. `bɨk alak `əm `motəə `hituu `ben `əmlaa kaato. ‘His arm looked like it was injured.’ vt. hit someone dəktəə hinam ləətəə -təə on the leg while walking; cross strides while walking. hit someone accidentally while swinging one’s arm. vt. ‘break something, e.g. a stick, by kicking it’. tɨrkak n. doubled-handled bamboo 2 mug; mug made from a section of bamboo cut off near the base, with two looped bamboo handles attached via rattan weave; used for drinking. `tɨrnam vi. die out; become extinct; become extinguished, as of a lineage. `əm maarəm, `nok alii ə `tɨrr ku. ‘Otherwise, your lineage will become extinguished.’ vt. break something relatively small, long, and hard, such as a stick. Var: -`t; -`ttə. adj:mono. big. Gram: Adjective root combining with classifiers and other noun roots vs:adv. readily; willingly; easily; Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject performs an action readily, willingly, or without putting up obstacles or hesitations Usage: Often used in quickly. tɨrnam -`tə the negative in “-maa”, to describe something which is resisting. `nentəə maa. ‘It doesn’t come out easily (of a highly abstract meaning, e.g.).’ `centəə `lamaa. ‘It cannot be learnt easily’. `təə- `aken `na `dortə `duu, okkə `aken `na doryaa `duu. ‘One is a big one and one is a small one.’ `hɨɨn `nəttə `na ‘big tree’. See: `attə ‘big (P)’. clfqr. Classifier for sections of bamboo, including knot. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `təəɲi ‘two sections of bamboo’. See: `atəə ‘section of bamboo (including knot)’. `təə `təo -təə n. elephant calf; baby elephant. 1 vs:adv. injure; harm; hurt. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in someone being hurt or injured, generally inadvertently, accidentally, or without the intention to have done so. Often used in situations involving a chopping, hacking or swinging dem. that (thing) which is up there, upriver, or to the north of the place of speaking. `təə `yəəkə `laa? ‘Whose is that (thing up there)?’ `təə, `Borii dooluu ə `təə. ‘And the Bori village is up there.’ ace. See: `təəkoo-`təəloo adj:expr. `təəkoo ‘non-uniform’. `təəkoo-`təəloo 158 təəkom `tətə non-uniform, of a sequence, as a line of different-heighted people. təəkom nce. See: təəkom-`pətək Var: tekom-pətək. up there is very beautiful.’ `tək go `rəduu. ‘There’s one of that kind up there (of chicken) there.’ ‘popping beetle’. təkər in ace. curling. Usage: usu. occurs təəkom-`pətək expressive compound. n. popping beetle; variety of beetle which snaps a joint on its back violently to try to escape from a presumed predator’s grasp. See: təkər-təmər ‘curling’. təkər-təmər təkk təksɨɨ `təguu Var: təgər-təmər (P). adj:expr. curling, as a flower or onom. crack! Bang! Usage: used curly body hair. to reference or imitate a large cracking or smashing sound. n. kettle, for boiling water. təənam `təərum tək- vt. chop, as a tree. adj. sequential, events of a narrative. as the clfqr. Classifier for lengths or sections of a long thing, such as wood chips cut from a pole, or stretches of road or river. Gram: adj. curved; generally describes a more-or-less regularly curving line, as a sine wave. Var: `təguu-təgəə (P). adj. zigzagged; properly describes Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `təgɲi go ‘two (wood) chips’. See: atək ‘stretch; length’. `təguu-təyəə təkom n. variety of ritual amulet, usually antique, composed of a single metal disc base with five cup-like welded-on fixtures protruding from the base. Used as focal element of an “əbak” ritual object, upon which it is laced with red string. hob pag nammə, təkom barrɨɨ go, ɲaar barrɨɨ go gərə, `əi. ‘Those for whom a mithun is sacrificed...will wear ten “tekom” amulets, ten “ɲaarə” ornaments.’ a line with no discernible regularity. See: `təguu ‘curved’; təyəə ‘misdirected’. `təgəə pcl. simply; just; only. `camɲi `təgəə `əm ŋo `jilaa `tamaa `bə. ‘Giving you twenty rupees is not a big deal to me.’ təgnam `orok `bə `təkpak tok. ‘Hack it off with a dao!’ vt. 2 • mince; 1 • hack. təkom-ɲaarə n. compound denoting a particular class of See: təkom ritual ornaments. ‘variety of amulet’; ɲaarə ‘variety of ornament’. dem. that sort of thing, which cut up into small pieces with a chopping motion, with blade leaving the surface of the object in small strokes. ŋunu attɨr ə adin `əm təgrə. ‘We will cut the meat as a group.’ `təcuu `tətɨɨ `tətə n. small or dwarfish elephant, not necessarily a baby. n. herd of elephants. `hot-`tətɨɨ ‘herd of elephants’. nce. See: `tətə-`beenə `təkə is located up there, upriver, or to the north. `tək `hɨɨn maaji `kaaken `duu. ‘That kind of tree ‘blackbird’. 159 `tətə-`beenə `rɨtər `tətə-`beenə `təttə n:qual. n. blackbird. constant; Gram: Qualifying noun following another noun giving the overall sense ‘nothing but x’ or ‘constantly and continually x’. `tol `piŋken `təttək nothing but; so much. only; through the air with the manner characteristic of a discus. vt. toss or throw a discus; cause an object to fly through the air in the manner of a discus. -təm go dooto! ‘There was only one house up there!’ no `təttək `tol `duuna. ‘You were the only one staying there.’ vs:adv. upon. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that something happens upon something else, whether in addition to a previous occurrence, on top of or over another occurrence. vt. refill, e.g. a glass with tənam 1 vi. bounce, as of a car. gaarii ə `təduu. ‘The car is bouncing.’ `pɨtəm `təmbə -tər drink. pro. like that (thing which is tənam 2 vi. sit in a non-traditional, informal or haphazardly fashion; plunk oneself down; sit any old place (not necessarily on a seat). tənam tət `kee! ‘Go ahead and plunk yourself down anywhere!’ ŋo sokii `əm təkok rə. ‘I’ll sit straddling the chair.’ located away from and upward of the speaker/hearer). vs:adv. in the end; at the last. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating either that something happens at last, or at a natural endpoint, or else that something moves all the way to an endpoint. `bə `yoolo bittər eeb tənam 3 vt. punch with an open palm. `tənam vi. grow larger; increase in size; enlarge, as of a swelling river or a growing child. abbɨɨ! `təbaa! ‘Wah! He’s gotten so big (of a child)! `iss `ə `təkik `duuku `lakaa. ‘The river has really swollen up.’ n. elephant n. maize; corn. `dɨɨ? ‘Where might (the river) peter out?’ ŋo `hog `mentər `duu. ‘I’ll talk up to this point.’ `nom ŋo `mentər hikaa ku. ‘I failed to convince you.’ vs:nzr. endpoint. Gram: Nominalizing suffix to a verb root deriving a noun with the meaning ‘endpoint (in space) of V’. `hɨg `tənə təpə cow. See: `hotə ‘elephant’. `cəəna `ŋok hɨktər ə. ‘This is exactly the point where I stopped tracking (because the trail disappeared).’ təpə-buluu Var: təp-bulu. n. popcorn; maize exploded by dry-roasting at high heat. See: təpə ‘maize’; buluu ‘explode into white’. n. elephant bull. vi. intər vi. 1 • go all the way to the end of a road, path or journey. 2 • finally or at last consent to or make a decision to go. n. endpoint, of a journey e.g. `təbo `təbnam fly, of a disc or discus-like object, such as a frisbee or boomerang; move `rɨtər vt. 1 • do an activity until an endpoint, whether natural or specified. 160 `tərəə `təlee 2 • go ahead and do something; stop dallying and finally commit to doing something. `yəər ku. ‘If you don’t support it, the house will topple over.’ -tər...-gaa n. end, of a task e.g. `rɨtər kaamaa. ‘There’s no end to this (activity).’ `tərəə n. elephant tusk. vs:advs. level best; every possible way. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the event indicated by the verb repeatedly or many times, but ultimately in vain or to no effect. tərnam vt. prop up, brace or support something from the side, as when jamming a log against a door; of a stick, jammed lengthwise, as against an obstacle in a river. tərmaa boolo, namm ə ŋo `yuptər `yubgaa toku ba. ‘I’ve had enough sleeping.’ ŋo kaatər kaagaa bee, `kaacen maa. ‘I looked several times, but I couldn’t find out what it was.’ See: -tər ‘to the end’. `təlee n. wild elephant. 161 da -`daa D da 1 - d occurrence Usage: Very often occurs in construction “kudda”. `og `bulu bos `duuku da. ‘So then, again they were frightened.’ `ao `ə `hogo `goodaa kuda, Paadam ə `aala, `papak daaku da. ‘Once a child grew up to here, the Padam would come and just kill him flat out.’ miŋg daaku da, caadaa kudda, miŋg daaku da `caakur daaku da. ‘Chase them away once, back they come; chase them away again, and back on up they return.’ pcl. 1 • as for; on the other hand; however. Gram: Contrastive particle usually following a noun, marking it as something contrasting with another, thematically related referent. Often functions to recall a referent which has previously been mentioned in a conversation, but which hasn’t been mentioned for some time. May also follow a nominalized clause, contrasting the information with some preceding discourse content (often, what another speaker has just uttered). ŋo da `mɨɨloo `əm məənamə `na. ‘I, on the other hand, am thinking about (what to do about) the roof.’ okkə, “`hoojɨɨ” `hɨgɨ da...‘And so this “hoojɨɨ” thing on the other hand...’ kaanam ə da...aloo-loos kaaku maane. ‘But by the looks of things...there isn’t any more need to provide provisions (for tomorrow’s labour, because the work will have been finished).’ 2 • Assertive particle. Gram: Has the basic meaning ‘I assert this information to be the case (whatever you may think)’, and potentially with an implication that the addressee should know, or should have known, that it is so. Often follows Evidential particle “ben”. `tə -daa swiftly; soon. Gram: 1 vs:adv. Temporal suffix indicating that an action will occur soon or very swiftly relative to the time of speaking. Often occurs in the semi-reduplicated form “-daa...-raa”. kai daarə. ‘It (the corn) will grow up quickly.’ `bɨɨ tabb `əm `pəək `daaduu. ‘He kills the snake swiftly.’ -daa Gram: Achievement 3 vs:asp. yet. suffix, indicating achievement of a state resulting from a given action. Generally occurs in negative sentences, giving the overall meaning ‘not yet’. ŋo immaa da. ‘I `cin `kaaduu da. ‘There are also some up there, you know.’ `bɨɨ `is hukaa `benda. ‘I’m quite sure she’s taken her bath (based on irrefutable evidence).’ didn’t go yet.’ `is humaa `dabə, ŋo dorə. ‘Before bathing, I’ll eat.’ ɲɨjɨɨ jɨɨd maadaa. ‘He’s not old yet (of a man).’ daa- da 2 pcl. again; once again. Gram: Recursive particle, marking an event or state as happening again, just like a similar or identical earlier clfr. Classifier for sticks. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `daatə ‘big, of a stick’. See: adaa ‘Classifier for sticks’. -`daa vs:adv. equally. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that one or more 162 `kuudaa hinam -`dakkom things are equal in the way specified by the verb. `Daarɨɨ name. village in lower West `kuudaa hinam balanced. vi. be equally Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. Formerly known as “Daring”. daakoo stilts. Usage: usu. occurs in expressive compound. See: daakoo-daaloo ‘stilts’. nce. n:expr. daahak -`dak n. single stick. daakoo-daaloo Daatuu `daadii vs:asp. Change of State aspectual suffix. Gram: Predicate suffix marking a usually stative verb as a ‘current’ or ‘new’ state, generally in contrast with some earlier state-of-affairs. Very frequently occurs together with Completive aspectual suffix “-ku”, which also focuses on the transition between one event or state and another. a! stilts; leg-extensions used for walking at a greater-than-usual height. name. Daatuu, father of Tuusɨk-Maasɨk, a legendary ancestor of the Mising. n:qual. exactly; precisely; none other than. Gram: Qualifying noun following another noun and giving the overall sense ‘exactly this one and no other than is being aimed for’ or ‘exactly this and no other that is the goal’. `əgə `daadii `na `ŋunnəm `ob `gənna. ‘It’s precisely that one (stone) which caused us to fall over (on our motorbike).’ no `əgəm `daadii `ree lagi `dooko? ‘Is it exactly that one (and no other) that you’re aiming for (hoping/wanting to get)?’ ŋo `bɨəm `daadii dəmrə. ‘I will hit him especially (not worrying about anyone else).’ `məəpaa məəbəə `maadak! ‘Ah! I can’t remember (how to say this in English, although I once knew)!’ `saa ŋo `tɨɨlɨɨ `dak. ‘I could sure use some tea (upon returning).’ `bɨɨk `iidak `əm, `saa `molaa `na. ‘When he comes down, make tea (for him).’ -`dakkom Var: -`dak `kom. vs:nf. even (though); although; despite (that). Gram: Concessive subordinating verb suffix usually indicating that although or despite the fact that the marked information is the case, some other (potentially contrasting) information is also the `yoo ager go `rɨdak case. daanam 1 vi. high-step; swing one’s foot to or hold it at waist-level or higher, as when stepping over a fallen tree or other obstacle. `hɨɨpoo `əm ŋo `daaboo `duu. ‘I’m swinging my leg over the log.’ `kom...rɨk `rɨlaa `cin, `opoo `əm lagi `duu. ‘Whatever work we do...should we cultivate, we need rice beer.’ eɲcem `maadak `kom, ŋo `domum `duu. ‘Although I don’t like it, I just go ahead and eat it.’ pcl. daanam 2 vt. target something. vi. take a tumble; of a even; although; despite; whether; notwithstanding. Gram: `daanam person, stumble and fall; wipe out, of a motorcycle. `daakup vi. fall face down. Noun-marking sense of the subordinating suffix “-`dakkom”, usually indicating that ‘even’ the marked noun participates in the event/state indicated by the verb, 163 `dagnam `dajup although it might not be expected to. `əg `dakkom, `bulu apuk-anak `bə `caamaa rə. ‘That notwithstanding they won’t move in in such a rush.’ `ap `dakkom `ann `dakkom puuluu, `əi. ‘Whether male or female, they’re white, right?’ `yaddəm `dakkom `molaa rə. ‘I’ll be able to do it anytime (there’s no real need to do it now).’ `dagnam vi. 1 • stand; be in an upright posture, of a human or animal with legs. `dagrəp `tokaa! ‘Stand up!’ 2 • be, be at or be there, of with the basic meaning ‘again (just like before)’ capable of a wide variety of sub-senses. When marking a noun, indicates either that the marked referent participates in the action indicated by the verb ‘in addition to’ or ‘as well as’ someone else, or else is participating ‘just like’ he/she/it did before. When following a verb, gives the sense that the event mentioned by the verb is happening ‘again’ or ‘just like’ some previous event. `bul `cin dada ŋo something contained by something else. Locative existential verb for non-living objects which are contained by another object, such as an ingredient in a dish, water in a glass, or an item inside a bag. `əg `bə `dagnam go `dagduu. `turna go. ‘That’s to say that something is down there. Something alive.’ 3 • be, be at or be there, of `garɨɨ rə. ‘They also will be just like me.’ `noocin `tol `kə `iinə dadə nam. ‘You’re also from up there (just like us).’ tatɨk `ne `maduu ku dada. `gogduu ku dada. ‘He’s again searching for the frog. He calls him again (just like before).’ ərap `əm nərkok `laa, aad kuddada. ‘(By) pushing the door open, (someone) again came in.’ dadə-murə something attached to something else. Locative existential verb for non-living objects which are attached or affixed to another object, such as a poster on a wall or the buttons on a shirt. `ŋok aii ə `dagbəə `duu. ‘My teeth are still there (in my mouth).’ `teemaa `ə karkok `laa `dagduu. ‘The buttons are unbuttoned.’ adj. somehow; one way or another; through fits and starts, or in amateurish but nonetheless somehow successful actions. dad-mur `bə turbəə `duu. ‘One way or another I’m managing to stay alive.’ vi. 1 • feel around using danam one’s foot; advance the foot forward, but not necessarily take a step, and without the force of a kick. (ardə) dakup dalek ‘very clever and active/speedy (of a person)’. 2 • use the foot; dispose one’s feet `daglin n. variety of abundant and weed-like aster, erect to 5 feet high, with small white flowers and a roughly ribbed leaf. No use-value. Eupatorium odoratum. certain way. requires a following manner suffix. Usage: generally or legs in a `dataa `dajup adj. stand with the legs dada pcl. as well; also; in addition; splayed. adj. standing with one’s legs locked at the knees. again; just like (before); just like (it/that). Gram: Recursive particle 164 `dalɨk -`dii `dalɨk dap- vt. stick one’s foot into a space (e.g. the fireplace). clfr. Classifier for volumes, classes, or books (in the sense of e.g. textbook volumes/levels). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: adap ‘volume’. sentence 1, sentence 2 should not be expected to be the case; however, it in fact is. ŋo `kuuduu daram, dam n. price. adj. expensive. Source: Hindi. nɨŋmii `hiko `lo `pagduu. ‘Although I’m thin, I win at fighting.’ turgɨɨ kaamaee daram, arum goda `turlaa rəkaa `laa `əmlaa `məədak. ‘Although I’ve got nothing left to lean on, (seeing you) I think I’ll try to make it through one more night.’ 2 • even. Gram: Coordinator used after a noun which is not expected to belong to the predicate, but in fact does acc ə! porok ə daram -`dam vs:adv. straightened. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a straight, non-bent shape or orientation results from the action indicated by the verb, especially in a sense of repairing. Often occurs in the semi-reduplicated form “-`dam...-`ram”. vi. of a grain plant, begin to fruit; be at the stage when fruits are just beginning to form and the plant is swelling, as though pregnant. `am `gə damdəə ku. ‘It’s time for the paddy to begin to fruit.’ damnam `caaduu ɲoo! ‘Hey Elder Brother! Even the chickens are even climbing up (onto the wet concrete; what are we to expect next?!)!’ darnam -`dam...-`ram `moram gər `laa `bəəduu `na. ‘Somehow I’m keeping my bike running by tinkering and fidgeting with it.’ See: -`dam ‘straighten’. vs:advsr. tinker; fidget. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject tinker or fidgets with something in bringing about the action indicated by the verb, as though to fix in a more or less haphazard, imperfect, but possibly ultimately successful manner. gaarii `əm `modam vi. alert; heedful; conscientious, as someone who gets up very early in the morning and works very carefully and thoroughly. darmaa `na hor-`mootum `paamaa rə. ‘A heedless person won’t manage to reap the hunting spoils.’ vt. 1 • pick out or pick up `darnam something by pinching between two fingers, as grains of rice. 2 • segregate; separate something off to the side which is unwanted or not working well in a particular situation, such as rice which isn’t grinding properly. Select, as good apples from bad. `ambin `darnam ‘to pick through rice’. daram even though; despite (the fact) that. cnj. 1 • although; `Dalɨɨ -`dii Gram: Concessive disjunct coordinator used to join two sentences whose information does not match. Indicates that from name. Dalɨɨ village, name of a Lare Galo-speaking village in central West Siang district. vs:adv. again. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is being 165 `mendii dinnam (1) brought about again, i.e. another time. Can also have the sense ‘carefully’ in some contexts. village. -dik...-ik vs:advsr. hassle; bother; `mendii repeat something previously said (by the same `mendii kaato. person). ‘Please repeat (what you just said).’ vt. `məədii vt. reflect; think twice; think again. `məədii `laa `mentok. ‘Choose your words carefully.’ scurry; scuttle. Gram: Split manner suffix, indicating of a motion verb that the subject acts in a hustling or scurrying manner in the course of the action indicated. On non-motion verbs, indicates that the subject acts in a bothersome or hassling way. ɲii `gadd `ə indik inik ə! ‘People are scurrying/hustling about.’ `mendik `menik `diɲci vt. bother `diicup nce. earth ring; ring-shaped mound in the earth. Usage: usu. and hassle someone. Var: `dinsi (P). n. care. adj. precious; care-worthy; worth caring about. ŋo `əgəm `diɲci `bə `məəduu. ‘I take it very seriously.’ occurs in compound. See: `taruk-`diicup ‘anthill’. `diicum diinam n. butte; hill; raised clump, as of an island in a rice field. vt. piledrive; drive e.g. a diɲyek -din Var: diɲyak (P). n. flesh. stick or pole into the ground, as when preparing a fence or when pushing in a seed. See: adin ‘meat’. reason (for doing something). Gram: Nominalizing vs:nzr. `diirə demarcate land by laying down posts, as to show ownership. `ŋok kodee `əm `diirla arə. ‘I’ll demarcate my land (by laying posts along the boundaries).’ vt. suffix on verb roots deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘reason for doing something’ `nok `əmbə `mendin `ə `yoo `ə `laa? ‘What’s your reason for talking like that?’ dintək `Diimii `diilɨɨ name. name of a powerful demon spirit. n. bacon; yellowish fat which is found immediately beneath the skin of a pig. n. hunk of meat cut away from a butchered animal, which is designed to be distributed along different households in the village (one per household). dinnam (1) `Diihɨɨ Var: `Diisɨɨ. name. village of West Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh. Along with Paagɨɨ and Daarɨɨ, one of the main villages inhabited by the Rwbaa clan of Lare Galo and their legendary homeland. Literally, the name means “head of the ‘kidii’ river”, which is located near to the 1 vi. of a fowl, be sickly or lethargic due to disease or poor health. `ŋok `rognə `pɨken `ə `dinlaa `duuku; hilii `hogo `hidee dooku `ben. ‘One of my hens has grown sickly; it seems there may be plague about.’ dinnam (1) 2 vt. decant something solid; transfer a quantity of small things such as grain, beans or uncooked rice from one container 166 `dinlee `duunam into another. `ambin `əm duuhin lo dint `kee. ‘Pour out the paddy in a bamboo container.’ duukam `dinlee `dinsen dimpaa du- n. fresh meat. n. dried meat. n. variety of large bamboo container used for storage (as of rice grains), which may be stopped up at one end via a corncob used as a cork. n. n. small container (about probably meat. chopping block, especially used for `duukii `duugəə 2” in diameter) made from a section of bamboo. bench; seating area generally constructed against the edge of a balcony. n. n. sesame. clfqr. Classifier for sounds. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `duken go ‘one sound’. `duujap `duutup `duum `naana ‘the third sound (in a series)’. duu- clfqr. Classifier for sections of bamboo. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `əə `duuɲi go n. bamboo container especially used for measuring out rice, which will then be used for transporting rice to the cooking pot. vi. 1 • sit, of a human or animal; be in a sitting position. `duut `kee. ‘Have a seat.’ 2 • stay; be staying at or living at ‘two sections of bamboo’. See: uduu ‘section of bamboo’. `duunam -`duu suffix. vs:asp. Imperfective aspectual Gram: Predicate suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is unfinished, incomplete, or ongoing. Usually translates English present continuous/progressive. Usually indicates an event occurring in present time, but this is not necessary. a particular place, in a temporary sense. `bɨɨ `hiloo-`məroo `yool `duuduu `ko? ‘Where is he staying these days?’ 3 • be, be at or be there, of a ŋo `hiloo-`məroo dooluu `tolo `duumum `duu. ‘Lately I’ve been just hanging around up in the village.’ -duu human. Locative existential verb for humans who are temporarily occupying a space. `bɨɨ `duuree? ‘Is he there?’ `uŋŋaa go `duuna `ɲina. ‘(He) found that there was a baby (inside the basket).’ 4 • be, be at or be there, of a vs:adv. upward; northward. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed upward or northward, though not necessarily reaching any goal. cidduu ‘throw a spear upward/northward’. `jaaduu ‘swim upstream’. tuduu ‘kick something such that it goes upwards’. duukaa n. black perilla. Perilla spp. non-living thing which is in a sitting position. Locative existential verb for non-living things which are physically squat, rotund, or lacking a dominant vertical or horizontal extension, such as a tea kettle, a pot, or a stone (and also a tree). `ahi `lɨɨn `ahi `alo `duubəə `na. ‘This here boulder has always 167 `duunə `dumci been there.’ `dutə n. loud sound. `duunə duupuu `duupər `duurə duuhin n. female relation (usually adj. loud, of a sound (not of a a sister) who is to be or who has already been married-off. n. white perilla. Perilla spp. Usage: may also be used to refer to white sesame. n. stool (for sitting on) of human voice). dunam v:c.arg. make an audible sound. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “ado” ‘sound’ ado dunam ‘to make a sound’. `dunam -`dum either plank-wood variety. ‘neighbour’. or woven vt. dig a hole by scraping with a tool, as a stick or shovel. vs:adv. helpingly; as help to Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is acting in the verb as help to someone else (usually the object) who is already participating in the same event. n. neighbour. namə-`duurə someone. Var: duusin (P). n. large bamboo container used for storing rice in medium-sized quantities (larger than a few kilograms). n. shop; Assamese. `rɨdum -dum dukan store. vt. help someone, with a task, e.g. no `ŋom `rɨdum `lap `ree? ‘Will you help me?’ Source: dukan-`bojar n. shops and markets; shops and so on; various types of buying-and-selling place. See: dukan ‘shop’; `bojar ‘market’. 1 vs:adv. purposefully; wilfully. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject persists in a task despite its difficulty, or with purposefulness or resolve. ŋo `rɨdum `laa `rɨmaa. ‘I didn’t do it on purpose (it was an accident).’ dumam dumii `dumə dumgɨɨ n. soft part of the head, See: tabə-dumii ‘worm dugnam vi. roll, of a ball or other between forehead and pate. nce. spherical thing. `ɨlɨɨ `ə əttam `lok `dugloo `duu. ‘The stone is rolling down the hill.’ vt. 1 • roll a ball or other spherical snake’. Var: magoo (P). n. tobacco. n. black hair. n. main pillar of a house, thing. `ɨlɨɨ `əm `ŋok `peeləə `bə dugin `tokee. ‘Roll the ball over to my side.’ 2 • drive a vehicle, such as a `dumkə motorcycle or car. ŋo gaarii `əm `dugduu. ‘I’m driving the car.’ generally located adjacent to the “`baago”, on which the husband of the house has the right to lean. dugnam 2 v:c.arg. whip oneself into dumci a frenzy; become or be frenzied. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “hiduk” ‘frenzy’ hiduk dugnam ‘to frenzied or furious’. become Var: dumci-rɨlek. n. ball-shaped ritual object made from wrapped, intertwined bamboo. Used in the construction of altars. Var: `dumsi (P). n. `dumci 168 dumci-rɨlek `dei headache. ŋo `dumc `ə. ‘I have a headache.’ with various types of ornaments cascading down from it. dumci-rɨlek Var: dumci. n. variety dummaa `dumrɨk of woven bamboo ball, used in rituals. See: dumci ‘ritual bamboo ball’. head. ‘variety of grasshopper’. adj. headless; lacking a See: takom-dummaa `dumcuu deer. n. 1 • pate; top of head. Var: `dumsuu (P). n. hog 2 • crest; zenith; topmost point in dumjen n. hair beads; ornamental beads tied into the hair, generally as part of a wedding headdress. dumdum `dumnə n. n. drum. an arc of motion. dooɲ ə `dumrɨk `tə `dagduu. ‘It’s exactly noontime, with the sun directly overhead.’ (lit. ‘The sun is up at the crest of the head.’). barking deer doe; female barking deer. See: `hodum ‘barking deer’. n. pillow. n. bangs; hair extending dumluk dumlɨɨ n. baby’s hair; peach fuzz. dumpaa `dumpii `dumpin dumpuu n. red hair; brown hair. adum dumlɨɨ ‘red hair/brown hair’. vi. 1 • put durnam down the forehead, and cut just above the eyebrows. n. deerskin, barking deer skin. one’s head forward, move headfirst, as when carrying goods in a head-strapped basket. 2 • act forcefully, pushing one’s especially n. white hair; gray hair, as of an old person. adj. white or gray, of hair. own opinions or concerns. `bɨɨ durnam `bə `menduu. ‘He’s pushing his own points exclusively in the conversation (forcing everyone else to listen).’ `dumpuk women. n. headscarf worn by n. head (on the body). `dei dumpoo See: adum ‘head hair’. dumpoo-aloo `dumpə n. skull. See: dumpoo ‘head’; aloo ‘bone’. n. topknot; hair worn up, knotted at the back. adj. curly, of hair. n. dumpər `dumbo barking deer buck; male barking deer. See: `hodum ‘barking deer’. n. headdress worn by a pcl. got it? okay? isn’t it? Gram: Exhortative particle usually occurring at the end of a sentence. On an imperative sentence, has the function of exhorting the listener to perform the mentioned command, by any means. On a declarative sentence, has the function of exhorting the listener to agree with the information mentioned by the speaker. In the second function, usually carries a lighter, lower Source: Assamese. intonation. dumboo Galo bride, based on a brass bowl `kanoo `rəm, `mento, `dei. ‘If you get hungry, just say so.’ `nok `rokcɨk `ə al `duu `dei. ‘Your knife’s actually pretty good, isn’t it.’ 169 -`dee -den -`dee vs:adv. may; be a chance; have a chance. Gram: Prospective modal suffix giving a sense that there is a real chance or possibility of the action indicated by the verb happening, and that no restriction or prohibition exists. In a negative sentence in -maa, has a sense of prohibition due to outside circumstances, as when a taboo or restriction exists. Is not used to describe the inherent ability or inability of an actor. ɲidoo `odee main period of extreme cold. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of January. deenam 1 vt. split bamboo; cut or split bamboo such that it will roll flat, particularly as when preparing “ɲoopee” planks for plaiting into walls or floors. deenam `duu. ‘There’s a chance of rain.’ `yaluk `dodee maa. tak `dodee maa. ‘You’re prohibited from eating chillies and squirrels (during the taboo period).’ no `jiruu `deena. ‘You’re obligated to give (money to elders).’ ŋo “maa” `əmdee `ko `əi kaamaa! ‘I’ve got no way to say no!’ `yəəla `hɨrum acin `modee `na? ‘Who will be the one to cook tonight?’ 2 vt. stew; boil a hard thing for a long time, such as potato, dried beans, or bones. deegok ‘boil something, causing it to crack (such as e.g. a potato)’. deemɨr n. grave-cleaning. Usage: usu. occurs with dedicated v. after a funeral, smooth away the footsteps made in the soil by observers and participants after filling in a grave. Var: deeyɨɨ (P). n. plains. verb “mɨrnam”. deemɨr-mɨrnam -`dee vs:mod. shall I; eh?; what? Gram: Propositional modal suffix, marking the action indicated by the verb as a proposed action of the speaker’s, which the addressee is invited to comment on. aci, ŋo nam deerɨɨ -`dek `aadee ku. ‘Elder brother, I’ll just go home now, what?’ acin `toodee. ‘I’ll serve the rice now, shall I?’ vs:adv. differently. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject has already performed the action indicated by the verb once, and is now doing so again. `rɨdek deegok n. relatively large crack or breach in a surface, as in the soil after an earthquake. adj. cracked or cracking, esp. of tok. ‘Do it differently (than you did last time).’ `hək `hoojɨɨ `ə `amɨr `əm `modek `hiduu. ‘This kind of chameleon changes its colour.’ deggok -den the soil or earth. n. relatively small crack in a surface, such as a human heel. `lədo-deggok ‘foot crack’. deegok-talok deecɨɨ n. relatively large and long crack in a surface, as after an earthquake. Var: deesɨɨ (P). n:time. first moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-December to mid-January. Traditionally identified as the 1 vs:adv. completely. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something (such as a supply) is exhausted or used-up completely as a result of the action indicated by the verb, or that something which is outstanding is completely or fully erased. Often occurs in the semi-reduplicated form 170 `moden -do(o) “-den...-ren”. `moden vt. use up completely. `murkoo `əm `moden kaaku. ‘The money has been completely used up.’ -den convulse; vibrate; 2 vs:adv. shake. Gram: Manner verb suffix indicating that something convulses or shakes violently during or as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Also occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-den...-ren”. cracked, as of feet; burst or crack open, as of a container whose contents are under pressure, or a full stomach. `all `ə `dedduu. ‘(My) feet are cracked.’ akii ə `dett `duuku! ‘My stomach is about to burst!’ `denlom vt. scare off an animal by making loud noises, as a tiger. Syn: looden. -den...-ren -`den improve. vs:adv. change; adjust; alter; Gram: Result suffix indicating that something changes, is altered, or possibly improves as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `aden `tokee. ‘Put it in a vt. exhaust; use 1 vs:advsr. up completely. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something is exhausted or fully-used-up as a result of the action indicated by the verb See: -den ‘completely’. -den...-ren different (more suitable) place.’ gəden adjust a piece of clothing. convulsively. 2 vs:advsr. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that something convulses in the course of participating in the action indicated by the verb See: -den ‘shake’. nce. See: deb-curum `moden `den vt. adjust; alter. `moden `tokee. ‘Adjust it; make/do it again (but better this time).’ by comparison; by contrast; however; on the other hand. Gram: Implicit comparative pcl. particle indicating that the marked referent is under comparison with another, generally contrasting referent. May have a bias toward a sense of negative contrast, as ‘he, however (doesn’t play very well)’ deb ‘kingfisher’. deb-curum -`do Var: bet-curum; deb-turuk (P). n. kingfisher. `bɨɨ `den, `ək `təttə! ‘As for him, it’s nothing but that sort of thing!’ `əm `den `ne ŋo `menduu `na. ‘That (not what you had been talking about, but rather what you said just now) is what I’m saying.’ `əmlaa `den `ne! ‘That’s what I’m saying!’ `taap-nəmik ə, `kəə, mikkaa to, `ŋok `kaad `hogo. ‘Whatever powerful storm you can muster, fine; blow it at me, right in front of me (literally, within my range of seeing).’ Var: -d. vs:nzr. range of. Gram: Nominalizing suffix to verb roots deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘range of/within which V can occur. Generally occurs on verbs of perception rɨɨluu-nəmik ə, -do(o) Var: -d. vs:asp. Stative aspectual suffix. Gram: Predicate `denə n:time. winter season. Usage: (P). See: dɨcɨɨ ‘winter’. vi. dennam (2) crack or be suffix focusing on the enduring, general or habitual nature of an event or state, as something which happens all the time or holds as a general condition. Very often occurs 171 doaa Dooɲi-`Poolo in polar questions, although is not itself a question marker in the strict sense. `kaapaa maadoo. ‘I can’t See: doogum ‘wind’. ‘thunder’; doorə see it.’ `arrom mee `jaabə domaa `doona. ‘I don’t eat much in the morning (as a general practice).’ Rɨbaa-Baasar `əm “alii” əmd `naana. ‘Rɨba and Basar are called (types of) “clan”.’ doogum-roodə See: doogum ‘plane’. n. jet; jet plane. ‘thunder’; roodə doogoo `doogəə Dooji nce. area; world. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: cɨɨgoo-doogoo ‘whole world’. n. bed; mattress; sleeping doaa n:poet. village. Usage: Goŋku. n. death anniversary; `doaa-`kaaji dookoo n. anniversary of someone’s death. hawk; kite; harrier. General term encompassing virtually any variety of raptor, including at least some varieties of eagle. nce. See: `dookoo-`ɲokik cot; anything which exists for the purpose of lying on. Syn: doopə. name. name of a Pugo Galo village in the central part of West Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh. dooɲi n. sun. `dookoo ‘heat lightning’. dookoo-`koocik Var: dookoo-`koosik. n. name for any of several varieties of sparrow hawk or other relatively small hawk, including but possibly not limited to pied harrier and goshawk. Circus melanoleucos, Accipiter gentilis. See: dookoo ‘hawk’. adj. sunny. dooɲ `duu. ‘It’s sunny.’ `hiloo dooɲ haggee! ‘I wish it would have been sunny today!’ dooɲi-`aako n. west, the direction of sunset. See: dooɲi ‘sun’; `aako ‘entrance’. n. variety dooɲi-kessoo-kelloo `dookoo-`ɲokik doogum n. heat lightning; distant lightning; lightning without thunder. of lizard. See: dooɲi ‘sun’; kessoo-kelloo ‘variety of lizard’. Syn: ɲidoo-kessoo-kelloo. dooɲi-taləə n. heavens; the stars, n. thunder; thunderstorm. doogum-gumnam ‘to thunder’. Var: doogum-doii (P). n. storm. sun, moon and sky. dooɲ-taləə ruur `əm, ɲidoo oji `rəcom. ‘If the heavens will it, I suppose it may rain for us.’ See: dooɲi ‘sun’; taləə ‘sky’. doogum-doorə Generally used to describe a fully-fledged storm, i.e. one with thunder, lightning, wind and rain all at once. doogum-door `rɨpin `doob beekaa to! ‘Pray for the storm to stop (speaking to a shaman)!’ Syn: doorə-doogum. Dooɲi-`Poolo n. name describing the traditional religion and/or code of spiritual beliefs and ritual practices of most Tani people, in which the sun and moon figure as prominent forces, and in terms of which nearly every Tani legend, myth, folktale or object of traditional cultural significance 172 dooɲi-`louu doɨ-lɨlə has been framed or construed. See: dooɲi ‘sun’; `poolo ‘moon’. `doomə doomər dooyap `dooyɨɨ n. cloud. nce. See: akər-doomər dooɲi-`louu `dooɲum n. sunlight. See: dooɲi ‘sun’; `louu ‘light’. n. ‘swallow (bird)’. nce. breeze. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: doorə-dooyap ‘climate’. n. 1 • story. `nunnəm ŋo `dooyɨɨ go ɨɨji rə. ‘I’ll tell y’all a story.’ shade; shadow created by a large, figureless object, such as a wall or tree. Does not include a recognizable figure or image. `hɨɨn-`dooɲum ‘shadow cast by a tree’. vi. 1 • lie; lie down, with a doonam 2 • advice. vt. advise someone. ŋo `bɨəm view toward sleeping, of a human or animal. `dooko `dooken maa. ‘The bed isn’t very comfortable (to lie on).’ 2 • be, be at or be there, of a `dooyɨɨ to. ‘I gave him advice.’ `doorak non-human thing. Locative existential verb for non-human things, including animals in most situations. tatɨk ə dooku maa. ‘The frog isn’t there anymore.’ `tə `moodii `tə `dooduu. ‘(It’s) up there on that mountain.’ `is doomaa `laree? ‘Isn’t there any water?’ 3 • Locative existential verb for Var: `dooyak (P). n. lightning, occurring together with thunder. `doorak `ragnam ‘to lightning’. Var: dooyi 1 • wind. 2 • breath. doorə ~ dooi (P). n. doorə-doogum Var: doii-doogum (P). n. storm. Syn: doogum-doorə. doorə-dooyap dooluu doolo n. villages or animate entities when predicating their permanent existence in a given location (most often, in the village in which one lives, and from which it appears to be construed that a departure is always ephemeral). `nok dooluu ə `yool `laa dood ko? ‘Where’s your village (located)?’ weather. See: doorə dooyap ‘breeze’. n. village. climate; ‘wind’; nce. n. See: doolo-taaci ‘variety of bird’. doolo-taaci `doohuk doɨ-lɨlə variety of bird, believed to signal the onset of the monsoon rains. n. steam; visible gas, as doopə n. bed; mattress; sleeping cot; anything which exists for the purpose of lying on. doop `əm puut `kee, ŋo `yumii `duuku. ‘Spread out the mattress, I’m getting tired.’ Syn: `doogəə. steam from boiling liquid or the exhaust or emissions of a vehicle. n. groundswell of power or `doomuk n. vapour; particularly, cloud vapour. See: `amuk ‘gas’. enthusiasm; feeling of interest or enthusiasm which arises in the course of a practice and invests the practitioner with energy and 173 `dognə `doraa power. Particularly, of a shaman gaining power in the course of chanting, at which point his behaviour and language will begin to spontaneously change. doɨ-lɨllə aar `əm, `mempin ha `məəpaa maa. ‘When I get inspired, I don’t remember that I supposed to stop talking.’ dokee ‘pig food (stuff which is to be eaten by the pig)’. `doko doji n. kitchen. adj. be full, as after eating a robust meal. dopak dobek n. snack to be served with drinks. Syn: tɨɨpak. `dognə n. variety of large-sized stone bead worn at the base of an ornament. v. release a fast (by eating). See: `aro-dobek ‘breakfast’. n. snack; junk food. `dogmin bead. beads’. n. variety of small stone See: `tadok ‘ornaments; `domen donam-tɨɨnam dotak vi. cluck the mouth, as when clucking lovingly at a baby. dodəə n. in measurement, the span between thumb and forefinger at maximum opposite extension, more or less in an L shape. Used as a ‘residue’ measurement when measuring by handspans rather than as a primary unit of measurement per se. `gobɲi `gola dodəə. ‘two handspans and a “dodəə”’. vt. 1 • eat. acin `dolaa ju! n. sustenance; provisions; daily bread; food and drink. donam-tɨɨnam `əm dokaa tɨɨkaa. ‘The provisions were consumed.’ See: donam ‘eat’; tɨɨnam ‘drink’. nce. See: `dopuk-`lɨɨgoo `dopuk ‘throat-pipe’. `dopuk-`lɨɨgoo Var: `dopuk-`lɨɨguu (P). throat-pipe; food-pipe windpipe. See: `lɨɨgoo ‘neck’. n. or -`dor donam ‘Let’s eat!’ 2 • corrode; eat away at, as an vs:adv. shine result. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in something shining or starting to shine `bɨɨ `əmm `əm `middor to. infection of the skin or decay of the teeth. `taɲ `doduu ku. ‘It’s getting eaten up by pus.’ public money, as a corrupt politician; divert public development funds into one’s own pocket. `ɲittə ɲimaa `murkoo `əm dorek `duu. ‘Rich people steal the money of the poor.’ 3 • steal ‘He blew on the fire (to increase its strength).’ dor- clfr. Classifier for higher (four-legged) animals, including mithuns, cows, goats, dogs, mice, turtles and lizards but not including snakes, insects or birds. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. hobb `əm `dorken dokee n. food; feed; fodder; material which is to be used as food, as for an animal. ərək go pakaa ku. ‘They sacrificed one mithun.’ See: ador ‘body of an animal’. `doraa n. variety of plant. Alpinia 174 dorɨk `modɨɨ sp. See: dorrɨɨ ‘ten animals’; panam dorɨk nce. welcome or meet by eating. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: dorɨk-tɨɨrɨk n. bridal gifts; gifts ‘chop’. `dolo doloo n. paddy; unprocessed rice. ‘bridal gifts’. `dol apar go ‘a mortars’ worth of paddy’. fixed bridge, i.e. of concrete or metal, as opposed to a traditional hanging bridge. n. n. jungle paan leaf; wild See: dohi-`giɲci ‘blessing Var: dəloo (P). dorɨk-tɨɨrɨk made to a bride’s house after they have been accepted and eaten. See: dorɨk ‘welcome by eating’; tɨɨrɨk ‘welcome by drinking’. dolo-paen paan leaf. `dorkaa n. earthworm. Syn: `tador. n. mud-pile sent to `dorkaa-apik dohi nce. the surface by a burrowing See: `dorkaa earthworm. ‘earthworm’; apik ‘animal-discharged soil’. basket’. dohi-`giɲci `dorkaa-laabuu earthworm. ‘earthworm’. n. foot-long See: `dorkaa `dornam vt. shine; glow, of a light Var: dosi-ginsi (P). n. variety of “`ginci” basket, densely-woven and conical, carried by women to the Moopin festival, which are believed to carry home blessings obtained there. See: `giɲci ‘smaller, densely-woven conical basket’. Var: -də; -d; -dd. vs:nzr. time. Gram: Nominalizing suffix to verb roots deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘time when V’, ‘time of V’, or ‘time for V’ `nok ind go (especially, firelight or torchlight). `əmm `ə minnamə `dorrəp `duu. ‘Having blown on the fire it’s starting to shine brightly.’ -dɨ 2 dornam pay; remit, particularly in the sense of paying an agreed penalty for a transgression one has committed. no `yad go dorkaa? ‘How much did you pay?’ vte. name. Dormam, name of `kaaruu `duuku, no inee kukaa. ‘Your time to go has come, you get out of here.’ `laadɨ ~ `laadə n. harvest time; time for harvesting. `am `laad `əku! ‘It’s harvest time!’ Dormam `yubdɨ ~ `yubdə a mountain near Dɨpə village in Likabali Circle. dorrɨɨ-panam Var: doryɨɨ-panam (P). v. sacrifice of ten mithuns, considered the ultimate gesture for any ceremonial occasion or ritual offering, and ultimate display of wealth and commitment. n. bedtime; time for sleeping. `ijjaa `yubd `jaacin maa, `ment rəmna. ‘I don’t even have the time to sleep lately, to tell the truth.’ -`dɨɨ vs:adv. painful result. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a pain results from the action indicated by the verb vt. hurt. `ŋok uun `əm `modɨɨ 175 `dɨɨ dɨgnam `modɨɨ kaa. ‘My wound was hurt (by his bumping up against me, e.g.).’ `dɨkin ace. See: `dɨkin-`bogmin ‘confused’. `dɨɨ pcl. Wonderment particle. Gram: indicates that the speaker is wondering whether the marked information is true or not. Although not a question marker as such, when spoken to another person may carry an implication that the listener should, if possible, fill in the missing information. “pua” tarɨk ə `dɨɨ? ‘I `dɨkin-`bogmin adj. drowning in difficulties; submerged in problems. `ŋok məənam ə `dɨkin-`boŋmin eeku ba. ‘My thoughts have been submerged in problems.’ n:qual. each (time); every (time). Gram: Qualifying noun following a time noun such as “aloo” ‘day’ and “`ayo” ‘night’, generally followed by “`bə”, as “`dɨkɨɨ `bə”. Gives the overall sense ‘every (time)’ `dɨkɨɨ wonder whether (this word) “pua” is really correct?’ `iji `yəə `dɨɨ `aadee `kunna. ‘Now I wonder who might be coming.’ `yool `dɨɨ `duuduu `ko? ‘Where is he staying, I wonder?’ Bojɨr aloo-`dɨkɨɨ `bə `Lɨɨk-Balii `induu. ‘Bojɨr goes to Likabali every day.’ `dɨɨdoo n. melancholy. `dɨɨdoo `məəpaa. ‘Upon thinking of this, I feel melancholy.’ `dɨgo Var: `lobo (P). n:time. summer; hot season. n. passing days; days `dɨɨnam vi. cascade, plunge, or beat down, of water, especially of a waterfall; of water, fall with great force. vt. bludgeon; flog; pound; hit dɨgoo-logoo passing by. `dɨgna nce. irritator; irritating or stinging thing. See: `dɨgna-`koona ‘poison’. with something relatively heavy. v:c.arg. bleed, of a nosebleed. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`ɨdɨɨ” ‘nosebleed’ `dɨgna-`koona n. poison. Var: `dɨgnə-`koonə. dɨgnam ŋo `ɨdɨɨ-`dɨɨduu. bloody nose.’ ‘I’ve got a vt. 1 • irritating, of food; give a burning sensation, as chilli pepper. `dɨɨbuu -dɨk 2 • stun, as fish when various Var: `nəəbuu (P). n. spear. vs:adv. irritate; give a burning sensation. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an irritation or burning sensation results from the action indicated by the verb vt. eat something which gives a burning sensation. no məədɨk `kaapaa `duu. ‘You look worried/like something’s pinching your heart.’ See: adɨk ‘irritation’. types of plant-based poisons are applied to the water in which they live; render a living thing incapable of functioning properly. about some dissatisfaction; moan and groan; criticize someone or something; whine about something, particularly something one is begging for. Usage: Does not include the sense of complaining to somebody, as about their 3 • complain dodɨk 176 dɨcɨɨ `dɨrci behaviour. dɨgyoo `kee! ‘Stop your whining!’ dɨcɨɨ Var: `deenə (P). n:time. winter; Var: `deenə-pətaa (P). n. cool season. to the bitter end, or to a point of intense hardship. Often occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-dɨr...-mɨr”, with the overall sense ‘utterly/completely exhausted’. dɨcɨɨ-pətaa endɨr blackheaded shrike, a bird whose arrival in the foothills area from higher elevations signals the onset of winter. Lanius schach tricolor. See: dɨcɨɨ ‘winter’; pətaa ‘bird’. feel burdened by hardship or pain. ŋo endɨr `əm `enduu. ‘I feel burdened by hardship.’ `bul `modɨr minsi `duu. ‘They are fighting to the bitter end.’ See: adɨr ‘exhausted’. vt. `dɨɲɨɨ dɨnam dɨnam 1 n:time. 1 • year (poetic). -`dɨr 2 • time (poetic). vi. chant (of a shaman). peel, particularly the 2 vt. skin of a person or fruit; skin; flay. dɨkak ‘peel clean, as a charred tomato’. vi. drip. vs:adv. sideways. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that something is oriented or positioned sideways, or otherwise in an unnatural shape or orientation. vi. sit side-saddle, as in a bus-cum-pickup truck, or a woman wearing a dress and sitting on the back of a motorbike being driven by someone else’. `əədɨr `dɨnam `iss `ə `dɨduu. ‘The water’s dripping.’ n. lunch. Source: Assamese. dɨpɨraa dɨpə `kədɨr dɨrii n. ritual objects, in particular 1 a bamboo stick partially shaved at the tip, with the shavings bent out to a flower shape and twisted around, used to drive evil spirits away by setting up around the house. 2 name. name of a village in lower West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, commonly known as “Dipa” following the Assamese pronunciation. vi. lie or recline on one’s side. Syn: `geddɨr. See: `adɨr ‘distorted in shape’. n. off-season; time around May-July when new rice has not yet fruited and there is relatively little agricultural work to be done. n. famine. Dɨpə dɨrɨ dɨrɨ-`yarɨɨ `dɨmik-`dəmək from an vertigo). adj:expr. dizzy, as ailment (not from n. famine and starvation; complete agricultural and economic catastrophe due to lack of rainfall and crop failure. See: dɨrɨ ‘famine’; `yarɨɨ ‘starvation’. -dɨr vs:adv. exhausted; to the point of exhaustion. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject participates in the action indicated by the verb to the point of exhaustion, `dɨrci Var: `dɨrsi. n. small strips of bamboo used for many types of detail work like tying up food packets wrapped in “oko” leaf. Usually made from “tabum” 177 dɨrnam `dəgaa bamboo. dɨrnam thing. vi. 1 • break, of a long `deek kaaku maa. ‘Now there’s nowhere for the birds to land.’ vt. 2 • break or break down, of a machine. vt. break something large and fly an airplane or other airborne craft; cause something to fly. 2 `dəənam vt. *. See: `anoo-`dəənam. long, as a relatively large tree. `dəənə-`poonə -dɨr...-mɨr vs:advsr. totally exhausted. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that the subject is totally or utterly exhausted as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Var: `nəənə-`poonə. n. healing materials of all kinds; medicines; pharmaceuticals; healing herbs and plants. `dəərə dəərə -dək vi. burp; belch. Var: deerə. n. `mendɨr-`memmɨr n. constant public hall; or perpetual blabbering on `nok and nagging. `mendɨr-`memmɨr `əm ŋo `talaa kuma. ‘I can’t stand your constant blabber and nagging anymore.’ See: -dɨr ‘exhausted’. meeting hall. vs:adv. different. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the result of the action indicated by the verb is or should be different from some previous iteration. vt. sequester; something separately other things. `hɨgɨm `tokee! ‘Keep this separately!’ vt. adək -dəə adj:mono. short, of a bamboo section. Gram: Adjective root combining with a small number of classifier roots, including “`təə-” ‘Classifier for bamboo sections’ Ant: -`hoo. `təədəə ‘short, of a 1 keep from adək one `modək `rɨdək bamboo section’. -dəə something before. make or do differently from vs:adv. all day long; 2 continuously, for the whole day. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb occurs continuously, especially over a period of an entire day. vt. change one’s way of doing something; do something differently from before. odəə dəkii vi. fall all day long, as rain. vi. lie down all day long. doodəə dəətuu aloo doodəə tomə...‘After lying there all day...’ n. sleeping and sitting area n. rice-pounding machine, consisting of a mortar and pestle whose pestle is powered by a foot-pumped lever. Source: Assamese. vt. sweep the foot; kick a dəgnam for female guests, next to the “ɲoodəə”. `dəənam 1 vi. soar; fly, as a bird or relatively small object slowly by sweeping the foot, tap or nudge something with the foot such that it rolls along the ground. in a plane. `iji pətaa ə `dəətuu `dəgaa vt. swipe-kick something 178 dəggɨk hinam -də...-də away from oneself, in any direction. `dəree Var: bopek (P). n. holes in dəggɨk hinam to impale oneself on something, such as a protruding stick, while walking. vi. vi. stir up dust while walking; kick up dust. adj. slow, of movement. dəgbum `dəŋom which seeds are planted. `dəree pennam (2) ‘to rough up the ground (usually by hand) to cover the holes in which rice has been planted to keep the birds from finding the seeds’. dərək adj. clean. n. variety `dərgee `nokkəm `dəŋom-`dəŋom `bə `rɨt `ke, əcəə `bə `rɨmaa `bəcin. ‘Do your work slowly, no need to rush.’ of deciduous fruiting tree. Grey bark, alternate bipinnately compound ovate leaves. Fruit brownish, 1-2” diameter. Spondius pinnata. n. variety of song sung at marriage times. `dəŋom-`dələə slow and methodical, of movements; slow and deliberate. `dəŋom-`dələə `bə dooɲ ə `caaləə `dak. ‘The sun is rising slowly and methodically.’ See: `dəŋom ‘slow, of movement’. adj. dəloo -də...-də `dəbnam vi. zip; zoom; speed; cruise, of a vehicle going very fast, a fish swimming at speed through the water, or a soaring bird or plane. pətaa ə `hokkə huik! `əm `dəblen eeku baa. ‘The bird flew out from here at top speed.’ Var: `dələə (P). adj. slow. vs:advsr. continuously. Gram: Split temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb occurs continuously over a period, usually involving several repeated performances of the same event (such as rain falling or repeatedly mulling over a thought). `dəməə dəmnam `od-`od `duu. ‘falling continuously over a period of time, as of rain’. ŋo `isi hud-hud `la `huduu. ‘I’m bathing and bathing and bathing.’ ɲɨjɨɨ aloo-`ayo `bə məəd-məəd `laku `yuuna. ‘They say the old man was thinking day and night.’ vt. beat, with fists or a weapon; hit (repeatedly). `abɨr `ne dəmyok! ‘Don’t hit your sister!’ 179 `na -naa N `na pcl. Declarative particle. Gram: Marks information as a declaration or assertion on the part of the speaker. Usually occurs with first person subjects, but this is not necessary if the speaker is confident about the information contained in the clause. Very often follows a copula “əə” or “ee”, marking the sentence as a clear fact. Very often used in answers to questions in “laa”. - n it that pissed into it?’ `yəəla `hɨrum acin `modee `na? ‘Who will be the one to cook tonight?’ ŋo dorrɨɨ `patə `rənna. ‘I am going to sacrifice ten (mithuns)!’ na pos. of (a quantity). Gram: Selective postposition marking a quantity noun - usually “`aken” ‘one’ - as something ‘of’ or ‘from’ a set. `aken `ŋom `takaa `duub `ree məənam ə `na. ‘I had thought you were asking me (that’s why I replied to your question to someone else).’ `əmlaa dood `naayuu `na. ‘Thus he lies there, so it’s said.’ A: no `yool `laa `iŋko? B: Aci `Bogin `gə nam `alo `na `iŋko. A: ‘Where have you been?’ B: ‘I’ve been to Aci Bogin’s house.’ `na `opoo `mop `lagee. ‘One of you has to make rice beer.’ `aken `na da `əm `iiŋak `hilaa `duuto. ‘One of them was sitting and warming himself intently.’ -naa -`na Var: -`nə; -`n. vs:nzr. -er; one who V-s; one who is ADJ. Gram: Subject nominalizer to a verb or adjective. Creates a concrete noun whose meaning is the same as the subject (= actor, agent, attributee) of the verb or adjective to which it is suffixed. When marking a simple verb, may be best translated with English “-er”, as “`dəmna” ‘hitter’. When occurring with a verb plus arguments, usually best translated by a relative clause, as “Aaloo `caana” ‘those who went up to Along’. Can form a phrase which is capable of modifying a noun in a relative clause construction, as “Aaloo `caana ɲii” ‘the people who went up to Along’. In second position, usually reduces to “-nə” or “-n”, as “`caan ɲii” ‘the people who went up’. `ikii `dona ‘dog-eater’. -nə; -n. vs:val. 2 Var: -na; 1 • using; by way of. Gram: Instrumental predicate suffix indicating that the subject performs the predicate ‘with’, ‘using’, or ‘by way of’ some object, means or method. When occurring at the end of a word, is realized as “-na”, “-nə” or, more often, “-n”. When occurring at the beginning of a word, is realized as “-naa”. May be repeated on the same stem, giving a greater emphasis on the instrument. In this case, if spanning two words the complex will be realized as “-n(a/ə)-naa”. If occurring in the same word, the complex will be realized as “-naan(a/ə)”. In either case, the instrument is marked in “ə”. `kaaken `nago ‘a beautiful one’. `yəəla `yas `hɨɨlɨk `na? ‘Who was ŋo `pətup `ə tɨɨn `duu. ‘I’m drinking with the container.’ ŋo `pətup `ə tɨɨn `naaduu. ‘I’m using the container to drink.’ ŋo `pətup `ə `iss `əm tɨɨn `duu. ‘I’m drinking water with the container.’ ŋo `pətup `ə `iss `əm tɨɨn `naaduu. ‘I’m using the container to drink water.’ tɨɨn `na ‘the one who used something to 180 bona(a) `naahuu drink’. tɨɨn `naana ‘the thing (tool) that was used to drink. Guhati inn haggee `ɲii, `murkoo `hɨgɨm. ‘We should have used this money to go to Guwahati (instead of wasting it here).’ for something; attribute something to someone. `ŋom `əmum `bə `mennə `duunaa `na. ‘He’s simply blaming me (without cause).’ 2 • name someone in relation bona(a) vt. lure, using a bait of something; lead something, using an instrument. hobb bon nam ohoo ə `biŋkaa. ‘The rope which was used to lead the mithun snapped.’ 2 • instead of; rather than. Gram: Manner suffix to a transitive verb indicating that the subject affects the object ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ the person who should properly have been affected. When occurring on an intransitive verb indicates that the subject acts in the action instead of doing some other action which he properly should have done. When occurring at the end of a word, *cannot* be doubled, and must be realized “-n(a/ə)”. When following another word, must be doubled, and is realized “-naan(a/ə)”. In either case, it can be ambiguous with the Instrumental sense. However, when the above conditions are violated, only the Instrumental sense is available. `bɨɨ `ŋom tun kaa. ‘He to or in honour of someone else. `ao `əm `ɲaaɲaa `əm `mennə `tuu. ‘He named his child after Paternal Uncle.’ naakaa n. ceiling. `naakum n. shack; small auxiliary house built on fields for resting while labouring, and sometimes for spending the night. vte. throw (overhand); throw at, as with the intention of hitting something. `hɨɨn `əm ŋo `hɨɨdaa `ə naato. ‘I threw the ball at the tree.’ nce. See: tatii-naanii ‘grain variety’; naanii-`kootə ‘buttocks’. naanam naanii naanii-`kootə `naabə Var: naanii-kootər. n. point on the buttocks which touches the ground when sitting. pos. for (the n-th time). Gram: Ordinal postposition marking an ordinal numeral as a numbered time ‘for’ or in the sequence of which an event is occurring. `him `gaan `əm kicked me instead (of who he was supposed to kick).’ (or ‘He kicked me using something, such as his foot.’). `bɨɨ `ŋom `tumen naan kaa. ‘He playfully kicked me instead (of who he was supposed to kick).’ (or ‘He kicked me playfully using something, such as his foot.’). ŋo `əgəm `əpak naan kaa. ‘I threw that away instead (of the thing I intended to throw away).’ (or ‘I threw that away using some tool or instrument.’). ŋo `ləɲi `naab `taduu. ‘I’m hearing this song for the second time ~ This is the second time I’ve heard this song.’ naarə n. variety of fish found in ponds and rivers, probably a bottom-feeder, with long whiskers and sharp fore-fins. Extremely small, about finger-length. Mystus spp. Var: `naasuu (P). n. granary; storehouse built separately from the main house, `naahuu `menna vt. 1 • blame someone 181 `Naur `naptum used for storing grains etc. See: huu- ‘Classifier for granaries’. ‘Sharpen (the tip) until it’s pointed!’ `Naur -nak legendary Galo ancestor, son of Panə, father of `Urci. name. naŋkii adj. sharp or sharpened, of a Var: `namkuu (P). adj. point or tip; pointed. vs:adv. chip result. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in the chipping off of some amount of a surface, as when n. `naŋkuu naŋko `naŋkɨr Nanii sour-smelling, as of a sweaty shirt; smelling of fermentation. Syn: gurbə.n. dorsum; back n. body odour. of a body. `nakpin small bamboo stick split multiple times at one end up to one-half or less length, forming decoratively lilting, flower-like tassles. Used as a common decorative item on traditional altars and other artifacts. Usage: (P). See: `rɨmə ‘half-split bamboo (L)’. vt. 1 • whittle; cut with a name. one of the possible nicknames of Abo Tanii. See: Abo Tanii ‘The Father of Humankind’. nanoo nce. See: nanoo-`piiroo ‘blueheaded redstart’. n. variety of small, mainly black-and-white bird, possibly blueheaded redstart. Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus. n. pointy, of the chin; sunken, of the mouth. nagnam nanoo-`piiroo sidearm motion, in small or large strokes, especially from downward to upward, as when cleaning an upper layer from the surface of an object or when whittling to form a tip. `upuk `əm nakkii `tokee! ‘Sharpen the arrow!’ 2 • gnaw; graze; literally, to bite `napkap adj. pointy-chinned; sunken-mouthed. `bɨɨ `napkap `duuda! ‘He’s pointy-chinned, don’t you see!’ with a roundabout, indirect or, particularly, an upward motion in which the bottom of the jaw gnaws upward, as when scooping at a fleshy fruit, or a fish eating at algae, or of a herbivore when gnawing up grass; eat from the inside of something with the help of the teeth; eat around, as when eating from a bone and selecting only the meat, avoiding the rest. naptuu 1 adj. 1 • short-mouthed. 2 • cut back, as grazed-on turf; lopped off, as a tree whose top has been blown off in a storm. naptuu variety of tree with 2 n. roundish, lung-shaped leaves, white, jasmine-like flowers, and pod-enclosed seeds. No use-value. n. closed mouth. adj. `naptum nakkii vt. make a point, ideally by shaving away at a tip. naŋkii `doob nakkii `tokee! closed, of a mouth or mouth-like orifice, such as a broadly-opening container. 182 naptor namko naptor nappaa n. mouth protruding due to n. 1 • mouth. projecting teeth. 2 • of a car, bonnet or hood. participial-like expressions (‘having V,...’). Subjects of verbs nominalized in “-nam” are usually in Genitive (possessor) case. rənam `təttə `əku `nappur n. blunt end; blunt tip. adj. blunt; not pointed; not sharp, of a point. nappor n. malformed mouth. adj. malformed, of a person’s mouth. `lakaa. ‘He’s been doing nothing but buying (not making things himself).’ kaanam `əi `kaacen `duu. ‘It’s obvious from first glance; ça se voit.’ `iinam `iisaa `bəree! ‘I reckon we might as well just go ahead and head down.’ `həmbə `rɨt nammə `na: ‘It happened like this:’. 2 • -ee; one who was/got V. Gram: Non-subject nominalizer deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘one who got V’, or ‘one to whom V is/was done’. Usually cognate with the direct object of the marked verb, but may also be cognate with the indirect object or any other core participant. Subject, if present, is in Genitive (possessor) case. donam acin ‘rice which was nabjak `nabjap adj. have a cleft palate. adj. flat, of a person’s mouth. `nabjom nabɲɨr adj. sloping-mouthed, as an angle-cut drinking container. n. mouth of a fish, or a human mouth of a similar shape. nabdoo n. protruding mouth, especially of the upper jaw. Usage: usu. describes a particular variety of mouth shape, not a birth defect or deformity as such. adj. of a mouth, to protrude eaten’. ej rɨgnam ‘washing (washed clothes)’. `dolɨɨ nam `yaraa ‘something one wants to eat’. nam- noticeably. `nabbik n. shrug of the lips. adj. shrugging, of the lips; shrug the lips. `bɨm `meɲji boolo `nabbik rə. ‘If you tell her she’ll shrug her lips (to rudely say no).’ clfr. Classifier for houses. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. namə `namɲi go ‘two houses’. See: namə ‘house’. n. musty odour; the kind of smell given off by bronze or by a person with a certain kind of skin disease. `namee nabbuu n. snouted or long-snouted; protruding lips. n. drool. n. fat or fleshy lips. `nabbee `nabber -nam namə n. house. `hɨg `ŋok namm ə. ‘This is my house.’ n. Var: nam-rumtum. family. See: namə ‘house’; rumtum ‘family’. n. back, of Usage: (P). namə-rumtum namko vs:nzr. 1 • -ing; to. Gram: Action (infinitive) nominalizer to a verb or adjective root. Derives a noun with an abstract meaning ‘the idea of V’ or ‘the act of V’. Used to form citation forms of verbs (‘to V’) and also body. ‘back’. the human See: `gurbə 183 `namkoo `niinii `namkoo `namcɨɨ `namcə `namji namtii n. house of a neighbour which is downward (downhill or southward) of one’s own. permanent dwelling; permanent house; non-nomadic dwelling or settlement. n. Var: `namsə (P). n. white sesame. n. `namsuu huuben `jaaduu. ‘It’s just too bloody stinky.’ n. stench. `peyak `namsuu `əm huucem `duu. ‘I like to smell the stench of (fermented) soybeans.’ `naruu small house. adj. sweet-smelling; nice-smelling; smelling of a high quality. n. perilla. Perilla spp. n. neighbour’s house, far n:qual. all; everything; everyone. `ijjaa `naruu `ə `tadok `maduu ku. ‘Nowadays everyone’s started searching for beads.’ `bɨɨ `naruu `əm `əmum `bə `dopak `tɨɨpak kaa. ‘He wasted everything (frivolously) on eating and drinking.’ name. Naro, nickname of a namduu namdum `Naro legendary rival of Abo Tani. See: `Taro. away or towards the north; someone else’s house within the village. narnam `namnam nampoo `nampom nampə vt. smell something. vt. borrow or lend something, as money; enter into a borrower/lender relationship with someone. n. Ceylon ironwood tree, a n. breadth of a house. n. nahor group cluster of houses. of houses; n. house breadth; breadth of a house; broad dimension of a house. nampə-`rikoo Var: namp-`rikoo. n. the ground space under a raised house. Properly refers to the ground area only, rather than the space as a whole. See: nampə ‘house breadth’. n. facial hair, including moustache and beard. n. odour of something n. decrepit house. n. length of a house. n. interior of house. adj. foul-smelling; stinky. `nammə tree of the garcinia family (Clusiaceae) of the tea order (Theales). Slow-growing to about 60’, with red or white new leaves which mature to a willowy green. Not native to Galo area, but nowadays widely planted and prized for its ornamental value as well as for its superlative value as an extremely strong and durable house pillar or post. Mesua ferrea. Source: Assamese. `niikoo n. element of a loin loom, a `namyaa namyaa `namyar `namraa `namsuu rotten or dead. stick used for holding the alternating strings in place. Found immediately above the “`taapə” and below the “`taɲi”. Niitoo Tani. name. Niito, first son of Abo n. soap stone. Variety of `niinii edible stone with the texture of 184 `Niinur `nuunam soft bone. Non-sandy and non-sulphurous but salty; eaten by pregnant women as a vitamin. birth order.’ nimmi hinam ‘to be directly in sequence with one-another in birth order’. `Niinur name. Niinur, one of the legendary sons of Abo Tani. name. Niipak, `nimii -`nu n. lullaby. `nimii `miinam ‘to sing a lullaby’. 1 vs:adv. take a break; take a rest. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is taking a break from bringing about the action indicated by the verb, in the sense of stopping in the middle with the intention to continue. `ŋan `tokee! ‘Take a `Niipak legendary son of Abo Tani, whose descendents later became the non-hill-tribals, or plains people. name. Niimə, second son of `Niimə Abo Tani. -nii...-naa vs:advsr. intermittently; bit by bit. Gram: Split temporal suffix indicating a hesitating manner to the action indicated by the verb, or that it is just starting out or occurring intermittently, in fits and starts. breather! aɲɲii go `ennu `tokee! ‘Take a little break from writing!’ -`nu ɲidoo onii onaa `duu. ‘It’s sprinkling/drizzling (rain).’ ŋo aɲɲii go marnii marnaa `duu. ‘I’m getting a bit angry.’ donii donaa `laa Guhati into. ‘I went to Guwahati snacking as I went.’ cooked; ready; done. 2 vs:adv. Gram: Result suffix to a verb of heating or cooking, indicating that an action results in something being fully cooked. vt. bake something until cooked. See: `nunam ‘be fully `baanu -nu cooked’. Var: -nə. vs:adv. aflame; afire. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in a fire. pan gərmə `jilaa -nin vs:adv. able to affect all. Gram: Result suffix with the basic meaning ‘able to affect all relevant objects’ Usage: Generally found in the negative “-maa”, giving the sense ‘without the potential to affect the objects’, implying that the objects are too numerous or great in scale to be able to deal with. `kɨnin maa ‘uncountable’. donin maa ‘unable to eat it all (because there’s so much food)’. `mennin maa ‘unable to say everything there is to say (because time doesn’t permit)’. See: anin ‘manageable quantity’. `kee. ‘Light (the cigarette) and then give it to me.’ nu pcl. what about x? how about x? and x? Gram: Suggestive particle found following nouns or, more usually, pronouns, used in a context where a listener has been discussing/referring to or acting on various objects, and when the speaker wishes to draw the listener’s attention to another object which s/he may not be aware of, or may have or seems to have forgotten or not noticed. `mɨɨ nu? ‘What about ninnam (2) vt. succeed someone in birth order; follow someone in order of birth. Aci `Miibom `ne `ninna ŋo. ‘I’m the successor to Elder Brother Miibom in our him (has he left yet also)?’ hi nu? ‘How about this (will it work)?’ `nuugaa n. balcony. Usage: (P). See: `koodaa ‘balcony (L)’. vi. bob up and down at `nuunam 185 `nuɲi `donek the knees; bend the knees; jump without feet leaving ground. `ŋok `hɨɨdaa `əm `bɨɨ `nuutɨr jikaa ku! ‘She broke my stick (by standing on it and bobbing up and down)!’ `nuɲi pro. you (dl.); you two. Gram: Second person dual pronoun 1 nunam nunam vi. moo; make the noise of vt. 1 • knead a cow or mithun. something relatively large, as bread dough. 2 usually human individuals. Obligatory on proper names which occur as object. Common on other nouns referring to identifiable humans. May occasionally occur on non-human object nouns which are highly topical/important, generally with an intensifying sense, as ‘exactly this one’. May also follow common object nouns which are marked by Accusative “`əm”; here also, with an intensifying sense. 2 • wrestle, in general. numin hinam `nunam vt. wrestling, as `puruu `ne `yoo jis kaaku maa. ‘There was nothing else to give to Whitecrested Laughing Thrush.’ `buppɨɨ `əm `mɨəm `ne jit kaa. ‘Give all of them to him/her!’ 2 • in; on. Gram: Temporal marker of a time noun referring to an irrealis (future or hypothetical) time which is construed as a punctual point (rather than a duration). Sometimes realized “n”. ŋo `ləken `ne `caarə. ‘I’ll a sport or contest. vi. of food, to be cooked/ready to eat. acin ə `nuduu `ree? ‘Is the food being cooked?’ nudaa maa. ‘(The food’s) not ready yet.’ vt. overcook something. `nuŋek `nunu ne come up at some point (once).’ `alloo `ne `molaa `jukee! ‘Let’s just do it tomorrow!’ Var: `nun; `nunn. pro. you (pl.); you all; you guys; you lot. Gram: Second person plural pronoun pcl. Admonitive declarative particle. Gram: marking information as something which the addressee has a mistaken idea about, does not know properly as he or she should, or otherwise reflects some wrong or untoward condition in the world. `neekoo -`nek n. yard; ground space around a home, not including the space under it. vs:adv. bad or unpleasant to do. Gram: Manner suffix usually `iji `ne `tɨɨlaa `ne. ‘(No), have some (rice beer) after a little while (instead of now, as you’re intimating).’ `əmbə moone! ‘No, not like that!’ acin donam əku ne! ‘It was food, don’t you see (what’s wrong with you)?’ `mərum ne `hukko. ‘Don’t you see, yesterday is when I bathed.’ indicating that the subject of the verb has some bad quality in terms of the action or condition indicated by the verb, or that the action is unpleasant to experience in terms of the subject. May also have a sense of ‘to the detriment of the object’ in some cases. `kaanek `tanek adj. ugly. adj. cacophonous; terrible-sounding. `tanek `duu! ‘That sounds terrible!’ adj. disgusting; terrible-tasting, of food. `donek `kaapaa! ‘(The food) `ne 1 • Non-Agentive case marker. Gram: Marks object nouns which refer to unique, identifiable, pos. `donek 186 `mennek -noo looks disgusting (not likely to be tasty)!’ `mennek `rənek tease taunt someone, jokingly or in spite. vt. someone; whether beverages, such as coffee or tea. `kəloo, `opoo go `nenlaa `juke! ‘Come on, let’s filter some rice beer!’ nennam (2) not nice to live (in or as). ɲimaa boolo `rənek `duu. ‘It’s no fun to be poor.’ Delli `hɨgɨ `rənek `jaaduu! ‘This Delhi is a craphole!’ Ant: -`ken. See: `anek ‘hate’. 1 adj. uncomfortable; vt. 1 • rub or press with the hand (not a tool); roll between the fingers; rub the skin, as when bathing; knead, as tobacco in the palm with one’s thumb. 2 • twist `nenko `nenko n. lineage; ancestry. n. exit. vi. 1 • exit (a room or off leaves; pluck relatively large leaves by twisting them off. vt. crush something into pieces by pressing (as between the palms). nemmɨk neppə nellɨɨ no 2 `nennam (1) 2 • emerge; other enclosed space). come out, as a product in a shop or a movie in a cinema. n. abdomen; uterus; area above reproductive organs, both interior and exterior. nce. See: banek-nellɨɨ ‘bridal 3 • leave one’s house/home or home village and enter the wider world; especially, go to an area where there is a market and many people congregating. `ŋun attɨr ə `Lɨɨk-Balii `nenrə. ‘We will all go to Lɨɨkaa-Balii (spoken from Silɨɨ).’ clothing’. Var: noo. pro. you (sg.). Gram: Second person singular pronoun, nominative case no `ruu `bəəcoo `tokaa! ‘No one other than you must bear it up!’ `nom nennam (1) vi. of a lineage, to descend. `əmbə Tanii `gə alii ə `nenkaa. ‘In that way Abo Tani’s lineage came about.’ 1 • progenerate; further a lineage. `om-`or go `nenpə lagi `duu. ‘He needs to have children.’ vt. 2 • brew or filter rice beer; pour pro. you. Gram: Second person singular pronoun, Accusative case ŋo `nom ayaa `duu. ‘I love you.’ `nokə Var: `nok. pro. your. Gram: 2nd person singular pronoun, Genitive case `hɨgɨ `nokkə `ree? ‘Is this yours?’ `nop hot water through fermented rice mixture to obtain rice beer. Usage: Used to describe the filtration of rice beer only; not generally used to describe the filtering or brewing of other pro. to you. Gram: Second person singular pronoun, Dative case `him ŋo `nop jir ku. ‘I’ll give this to you.’ -noo vs:adv. as preparation. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject participates in the event indicated by the verb as preparation, or in preparation for something else. 187 nogee `nəə `no yoo `ləgaa `bə `məroo `mennoo maanam ə? ‘Why didn’t you tell me yesterday (that you would need this today)?’ loosened pərnɨr `nə- nogee nonam vt. loosen something by turning, as the lid of a jar or other container. adj. yellow, in colour. vt. knead something relatively small, as tobacco in the palm of one’s hand; crush or snap something between the fingers. gun Assamese. n. 1 clfr. Classifier for things with a more or less cylindrical or stem-like shape, such as any plant or tree. As a classifier for trees, denotes the entire tree, including leaves and branches. nolii barrel. Source: `nɨɨnam `nɨɨyəə Nɨɨbo vt. nudge; push using the Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `hɨɨn `nətə `nago ‘a big tree’. See: `anə ‘stem’. hands (not a tool) lightly, such that it will not fall over. vt. push something out of `nə- the way. name. Niibo, one of the legendary sons of Abo Tanii, from whose line the Mising are believed to have descended. vs:adv. nearby (result). Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed near or nearby. vi. come close; come near. Gram: 2 clfr. Classifier for fish. Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. ŋoii `nəɲɲi go ‘two fish’. See: `anə ‘fish (counting form)’. n:kin. last brother’s wife. Usage: used by a male to refer to `nəii -nɨk or address the wife of youngest brother. his a `nəɨr n. 1 • first washing newborn baby. of 2 • baptism, as used among some aanɨk `nɨgjok Christian Galo. aɲɲii go aanɨk `tokee. ‘Come a little closer.’ n. variety of brass plate, similar to a “`boree”. -nəə vs:adv. satisfied. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object becomes satisfied or satiated as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. satiate; satisfy a craving or hunger, though not to the point of being full. acin kopen ə `ŋom `monəə geebaa. ‘The rice packet has satisfied me (I don’t feel like eating any more).’ nɨgnam vt. punch with fist (not open hand); push using a burst of rapid force with hands or a tool; stab. `nok `naapaa ŋo nɨkpor rə! ‘I’m going to bash your mouth out of shape!’ nəəbuu ə `nɨkpek `tuuku! ‘He was stabbed right through with (impaled on) a spear!’ vs:adv. loosen. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in the object being `monəə `nəə -nɨr pro. yourself. Gram: Second person reflexive pronoun, used in singular, dual and plural functions `əm `duudoo `bə `mot `kee, 188 nəənam `nəbuk `nəək `peeləə `bə. ‘After taking the small one, have them sit down, to your side.’ `nəəm `mens `tokee! ‘Tell (that) to yourself!’ no `nəəm pas rə. ‘You will cut yourself.’ kinds of through).’ people (coming `nəgɨɨ-`nəgɨɨ n. different types; all nəənam vt. season; spice up; make tasty; improve the flavour of a dish. iikuu `hɨgɨ maaj `bə `nəəduu. ‘This fermented bamboo really spices up (the food).’ kinds; all sorts. `ap-`ahee `nəgɨɨ-`nəgɨɨ `na `dooduu. ‘Fruits of every variety are there.’ `nəci Var: `nəsi (P). n. vicinity; nearby area. `nəci `lo `hibuu kaamaa nam `ləgaa `bə...‘Because there was no river in the area...’ adj. nearby; near to; close to. `nəənam `nəənə chant an variety of See: `anoo-`dəənam. vt. n. medicine; effective agent. “`anoo” chant. effector; Boləŋ ə Aaloo `hokkə `nəci `duu. ‘Boleng is close to Aaloo.’ `nəci-koonii `nəənə-`poonə nəəbuu `nəkoo Var: `nəən-poonə; `dəənə-`poonə. n. medicine; drug. See: `nəənə ‘medicine’. Var: nɨɨbuu (P). Syn: `dɨɨbuu. n. Var: `nəc-koonii; `nəsi-pɨr `na (P). adj. right up close; right nearby; immediately in front; immediately nearby. `nəjɨr n. young female calf who has not yet herself calved. n. thread. spear. nətuu `nətə n:kin. third brother’s wife. Usage: used by a male to refer to or address the wife of his third brother. n:kin. 1 • first brother’s wife. Usage: used by a male to refer to or address the wife of his eldest brother. 2 • respected brother’s wife. Usage: used by a male to refer to `nəgɨɨ n. lineage; line, in genealogy. `nunnə `yoo `nəgɨɨ `lo aad `na? ‘What line (in lineage terms) do you fall under?’ n:qual. 1 • variety; type. `hɨɨn `nəgɨɨ `gona ‘a variety of tree’. or address the wife of any brother by blood or kin, in a respectful sense. `nədəə n:kin. fourth brother’s wife. Usage: used by a male to refer to 2 • every kind; various kinds. `nəgɨɨ `əm `rɨto. ‘They did every sort of thing (to make trouble for us).’ donam-tɨɨnam ə `nəgɨɨ `ə `dooduu. ‘There is every kind of food and drink.’ adj. various, of types or kinds. or address the wife of his fourth brother. nənam vt. be jealous, be covetous, as of someone’s success or power. `ŋok ɲitt `əm `bɨɨ `nəduu. ‘She’s jealous of/toward me.’ adj. barren; unable to conceive, of a human or animal. n. adolescent female calf; `mooko abin kunamə `nəgɨɨ `na ɲii `əm `kaapaa `duuku. ‘Having cleared that area, we now find all `nəpoo `nəbuk 189 -nəm Nəhən female calf who’s just reaching mating/birthing age. -nər -nəm vs:adv. satiated feeling. Gram: Result suffix indicating that via the action indicated by the verb, an actor has become satiated and no longer wishes or feels able to do something that had been planned or intended. vs:adv. stun. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is stunned as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `monər `nəroo stun; semi-conscious unconscious. vt. render or donəm satiated as a result of eating something. adin `əm donamə ŋo donəm kaa. ‘Having eaten the meat, I was satiated.’ vt. satiate someone, of food. vi. feel Var: `nəyoo (P). n:kin. second brother’s wife. Usage: used by a male to refer to or address the wife of his second brother. `nərɨɨ 1 adj. late. adin ə au nammə donəm kaa. ‘The meat, being fatty, satiated me (rendering me unable to eat further).’ `nərɨɨ 2 Var: lərɨɨ. n. 1 • lower portion of a plant stem, relatively closer to the root. huunəm vi. by smelling (e.g. the odour of meat), feel satiated (such that no longer wishes to actually eat the food). n. placenta. nce. designation. of any pole-shaped object, especially a tree. See: `miirii ‘higher part of a stem; tip’. 2 • base nərnam 2 • rub vt. 1 • rub, scrape or wipe nəmam `nəmin a surface with a tool, as with a cloth. or bump up against something; collide against something or someone from the side, as when sitting adjacent or when in parallel motion. `ŋok gaarii `əm `bɨɨkə nərgəə kaa. ‘His car bumped against/scraped mine.’ 3 • flatten a field with a bamboo `nəmin-`gomcɨr Var: `nəmin-`gomsɨr (P). n. noun. Gram: Type of word (part-of-speech) basically denoting a concrete entity or abstract concept, construed as an entity. In Galo, subtypes of noun include proper names of humans and places, time nouns, relator nouns, numerals, classifiers, qualifying nouns, kinship terms, and common nouns. See: `nəmin ‘designation’; pole or other staff (drawn by cows) after ploughing. `gomcɨr ‘word’. nərkak nəhɨk `nəmɨɨ n. grass. `hobin `ə `nəmɨɨ `dot `duu. ‘The goat is going to eat grass.’ n. clump of grass. See: `nəmɨɨ ‘grass’; `alum ‘clump’. n. vt. wipe surface clean. or wash a `nəmɨɨ-`alum nəyaa nce. low growing plant. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: nəhɨk-`nəmɨɨ ‘ground cover’. n. ground cover, as nəhɨk-`nəmɨɨ Nəhən rotten damaged leaf. or otherwise grass or clover. name. Nehen, name of the 190 -nə...-bə cəənə-cɨɨbə highest mountain in Likabali circle. (while I target you)!’ -nə...-bə vs:advsr. move. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something moves in space as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vi. cəənə-cɨɨbə vt. knock, on a door e.g. ərap `əm cɨɨn cɨɨb kaa. ‘(Someone) knocked on the door.’ `rɨnə-`rɨbə `rɨn-`rɨb yok! move; budge. ‘Don’t move 191 -pa `paak P -pa Var: -pə; -p. vs:asp. Attainment suffix. Gram: Relatively rare suffix indicating achievement or attainment of an anticipated event, state or condition. Most often found inside nominalizations. A: `nom `jituu, - p `kopak `paat `na `paaɲi go ‘two big/long bananas’. dumpaa `paaɲi go ‘two pillows’. See: apaa ‘baton’. paa `əi? B: mm, `ŋom jipa. A: ‘Has he given some to you?’ B: ‘Yes, he has.’ `puruu `ne jis kaaku maa. pərəə `əm jip ku. ‘There wasn’t anything left to give the puruu. The pərəə was the one given it.’ “hoə-luugoo goop `ree, `hobin-luugoo goop `ree?” “Is your cattle enclosure made, is your goat enclosure made?” jicci-jiccii `bə `rɨp kunam `əna. “It set the river dizzy with mud.” “`akum `bə no nɨkt `kaa,” əmə nammə `na. ‘“You should poke her forcefully,” (Abo Tani) had said.’ expr. moo. Usage: Call of a bovine, such as cattle or mithun. hobb ə kuda “paa” `əm `jukkər `laa hoo `əm `nɨkk kaaku! ‘But now a mithun, saying “moo!” ambushed the cow and gored it to death!’ n:time. dawn. paa adj. dawn; be dawn; dawning. paa `dakku `ree? ‘Is it dawning yet?’ -`paa pa- v. etcetera; and so on. Meaningless verb root which is used only together with other verbs to form the sense ‘and so on’ or ‘and that kind of thing’. `əmlaa `ment-`pattə...‘While they were going on talking...’ `balɨɨ-`palɨɨ `laa gaarii lo rədo. ‘We sit on the bus feeling all vomity and pukey.’ yapuu-papuu ‘whitey-blightey’. clfr. Classifier for baton-like things, i.e. basically extended objects with some volume and/or rigidity. Prototypically classifies bananas, as well as pillows, cigarette packs, and some types of ant. Gram: Root form, vs:adv. get to; manage to; attain. Gram: Attainment modal suffix indicating that an actor gets to or manages to perform the action indicated by the verb, or that a state in which the verb-denoted action is `impaa otherwise attained. `dooree? ‘Can you manage to walk (along the path, since it’s very dark)?’ `kaapaa `tapaa `paak vt. see; manage to see. `kaapaa maado. ‘It’s difficult to see.’ vt. hear; manage to hear. `tapaa hear?’ `dooree? ‘Can you paa- 1 n. raven; crow of the variety found living independently in mountain areas, as opposed to in plain areas or in or near human settlements/cities. `paak used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. variety 2 n. ceremonial belt. of traditional 192 `paakii paapee `paakii n. cup-sized bamboo scoop used for measuring. `paak-`iipə n. variety of low-growing plant. See: `paak ‘crow’; `iipə ‘dried fermented bamboo chips’. n. variety of rectangular Lower Dibang Valley and East Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh, as well as scattered among and often mixing with Mising communities in Upper Assam. `paakuu `paanam plate made from bamboo. `Paako `Taɨ paagap `paagii name. name of a rodent (“`kəkoo”) protagonist in Galo folklore. n. variety of aquatic insect, about one inch in length, being the larval stage of a dragonfly. Var: `paagee (P). n. variety stack voluminous 1 vt. things, such as stones or firewood. ŋo `ɨlɨɨ `əm `paaduu. ‘I’m stacking the stones.’ rɨgmam `əm `paabin `la ap kula...‘After fully clearing the field (of residue from burning) and keeping (the residue) to one side...’ vi. of terrestrial insects such as of black and red ant with an extremely poisonous bite, living in colonies in fallen wood. ants, to swarm or form a group. taruk ə `paagoo `duu. ‘The ants are swarming around in a disorganized fashion.’ Paagɨɨ paacaa paacəə name. name of a village in `paanam West Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh. Var: paasaa (P). See: `yəəyɨɨ-paacaa ‘shadow’. Var: paasəə (P). nce. nce. 2 vt. get; undergo. `yəə `dɨɨ dumpoo `əm `gakcoo `rənna, `əgə `aɲɨɨ go arə `paarə. ‘Whoever was first to grasp the head, that one will get one year of taboo.’ paanam See: paacəə-rodo ‘rodent variety’. paacəə-rodo houses. vi. hover, of a hawk, vulture, or helicopter; swarm, of bees. vt. circle over an area, as a vulture. Var: paasəə-rodo (P). n. variety of mouse, living in n. marsh. Usage: (P). paagoo hinam `paapii paataa paatuu n. Usage: (P). large See: cəpaa back-piece. ‘large n. vagina. Usage: somewhat diminutive-sounding, not usually considered offensive. n. banana flower. back-piece (L)’. `paapuk paapee paa-`tootii-`roorii `paatə dawn; daybreak. See: paa ‘dawn’; `roorii ‘late afternoon’. n:time. nce. See: `rugdam-`paatə n. variety of basket, based ‘ant variety’. Paadam name. name of an Eastern Tani tribe mainly found in the on diagonal-weave, forming a star-of-David (six-point) pattern. Loose and somewhat flattened like a backpack, used for carrying dried meat and other roughly-stacking items. Similar to a “`poa”, although the latter has more of a rounded mouth. 193 `paabak pakoo-`lakpek `paabak clear un-muddied, as of water. adj. adj. and waste it, do away with it, or leave it behind. `opoo `əm `kuppak sober; unimpeded in expression. `mərum tɨɨkum to, `hɨr `paabak `duuku. ‘Last night I was drunk, this morning I’ve sobered up.’ 2 • adj. `tokee! ‘Throw away the rice beer (by overturning the glass)!’ `mimpak `laapak drive away an animal, e.g. hoo `əm `mimpak tok! ‘Drive (the cow) away!’ vt. vt. get rid of something; take something (unwanted) away. `laapak `tokee! ‘Take it away!’ vt. blow out a fire, `paabak-`tarak paabo paarin paalaa adj:expr. clean and sober. See: `paabak ‘sober’. n:poet. father. Usage: Goŋku. nce. See: acin-paarin ‘false Solomon’s seal’. n. juice. See: aalaa ‘juice’. `mippak -`paa...-`laa vs:advs. manage to (somehow). Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb affects whatever’s available, or that in bringing about the action, the actor does not manage anything great, but anyhow somehow manages. donam getting rid of it. `mɨɨ `əmm `əm `mippak kaa. ‘He blew out the fire (with breath).’ `papak kill something unwanted in order to get rid of it. vt. 2 • defeat; surpass. Sense of the subject defeating the object in a battle or competition. `laanam `mum `əm `dopaa `laalaa `laa, `əmbə `rəduu. ‘One way or another, we manage to put food on the table.’ See: -`paa ‘attain’; -`laa ‘able’. `mopak `tɨɨpak vt. defeat someone, as vt. out-drink in a battle. someone; surpass something in drinking liquor. `nom `bɨɨ `tɨɨpak `yaaduu! ‘He’s out-drinking you!’ pauu paen -pak vt. bang out metal to flatten it back to an original shape, as a blacksmith. n. pan leaf; leaf eaten together with betelnut. Source: Assamese. vs:adv. love to; like to. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject loves to participate in the event indicated by the verb. Usage: usu. occurs in split form. See: -`lɨɨ...-pak ‘love to’. vs:adv. 1 • rid; out; off; away. Gram: Result suffix to a usually transitive verb, indicating that in bringing about the event indicated by the verb, the subject intends to rid himself of the object, or to reject it, `pakuu adj. bent, as a flower stem with a heavy head or a radio antenna which has been damaged. adj. wilted; bent at the tip, as something temporarily straining under pressure/weight or due to some intolerable force, such plants under a very hot sun. ace. See: pakoo-`lakpek ‘arms folded’; pakoo-`ləpek ‘legs crossed’. adj. arms folded, `pakup -`pak pakoo pakoo-`lakpek 194 pakoo-`ləpek `pagnə as at rest or in impatience. `pagəə pagər pakoo-`ləpek cross-legged sitting style, with shins overlapping and feet tucked under; ‘Indian’ style sitting. `bɨɨ pakoo-`ləpek `la `duuduu. ‘He’s sitting Indian style.’ Syn: `ləko-`ləpek. adj. ace. See: pakɨk-lalɨk ‘arms drape someone else’s. vt. a leg across adj. crooked; wavy. pagnam pakɨk vt. care about someone; 1 like or love someone or something; look after or take care of someone. ŋo rumtum `əm pagrə. ‘I’ll look after my family.’ vt. suspend; hang from a 2 rope, as a permanent fixture in a house. vt. 1 • flick the arm or wrist, as when trying to relieve a writing cramp. huddled’. pagnam pakɨk-lalɨk Var: pak-lagek (P). adj. having the arms huddled or folded close to the body, as when cold. See: lalɨk ‘shirt’. `pagnam pakər adj. wavy; curling, as of hair; crooked; bent. adum ə pakər `duu. ‘(His) hair is wavy.’ nce. small. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `ŋoraa-`pakkaa ‘variety of fish’. 2 • sow `pakkaa seeds by throwing, usually by flicking or tossing sidearm. alii `əm `pagt `kee. ‘Sow the seeds (by flicking them into the seedholes).’ 3 • scatter something by flicking -`pak-`coojoo vs:adv. defeat something or someone or rid oneself of something summarily, without giving an opponent any chance. ŋo `nom `mopak `coojoo rə! ‘I’ll beat you flat out (you won’t even have a chance)!’ name. n. with all fingers of the hand as when ridding oneself of excess water. 4 • cast off, renounce or give Paktu name of a Galo something up forever, without any chance of retrieving it. ɲimm `əm `əpak-`pagmum `lamaa. ‘You can’t just throw away your wife willy-nilly.’ 5 • manage to do a task; dispose ancestor. `paktəm alimony; penalty generally levied upon a male following a divorce or dissolution of partnership. pagap of or dispense with a achieve success in something. Aɲi Mumsi `pagrə. ‘If you get Elder Mumsi she’ll manage it.’ task; doing bool Sister vt. clench, as a tree with one’s legs. ŋo `hɨɨn `əm pagap `duu. ‘I’m clenching the tree (by wrapping my limbs around it).’ adj. bent, as into a u-shape or other twisted-around shape, possibly into a loop. `pagjee water. vt. flick off unwanted `pakpak `pagnə `paguu vt. flick away, in general. something leaf; leaf of a 1 n. banana banana tree. 195 `pagnə `panam `pagnə 2 n. female slave. n. male slave. patəlu n. trousers. Source: English. `pagbo `pagyoo `padum n. variety of elephant apple or allied species, somewhat oval in shape. See: `campak ‘elephant apple’. n. grove of banana trees. n. n. confluence; joining of two rivers. `pagluu pacək adj. merged or converged, of rivers. Generally occurs with `isi ‘water’. `iss `ə `padum `hiduu. ‘The rivers are converging (at this point).’ Var: pasək (P). chip; splinter. paden pacək-parək Var: pasək-payək (P). n:expr. scraps and bits of bark leftover after chopping wood. See: pacək ‘splinter’. trembling; shaking; shivering, as in fear or excitement. ɲii `aɨk `na paden `duu. ‘People lacking confidence tremble and shake.’ adj. name. name of a Lare Galo-speaking village in central West Siang district. vt. 1 • chop; hack; cut a `Padɨɨ pajak `pajuk nce. See: ɲɨgji-pajak ‘eye crap’. n. war dance; belligerent panam frenzy; running around, threatening and yelling provocatively, as when whipping up one’s spirits in preparation for an attack, or of a cow when bellowing in anger and frustration. relatively large thing by striking away from the self using a medium-sized instrument such as a dao or machete, often in a single blow and usually overhand. `əm `papak `tokee. ‘Cut that off.’ 2 • strike, as of a snake’s bite or a `pajoo supporting beam, wedged diagonally against the pillars of a Galo house. Doubles as a fence for keeping animals out of the space beneath the house. n. adj. sloping; cut to a steeply goat’s attack; smash, as in volleyball. `tə `hobin `tə pat `duu. ‘That goat (up there) is about to strike/attack.’ 3 • kill something, especially by `pajom sloping angle, as of the angle-cut mouth of a bamboo drinking container. `pajom `doob pat `kee. ‘Cut it to a sloping angle.’ striking with a dorrɨɨ panam sacrifice’. dao/machete. ‘10-mithun parek `patum n. vegetable marrow; variety of long, fleshy squash. n. leaves of a vegetable marrow squash. See: `patum ‘vegetable marrow’. nce. jail. See: pahii-patək ‘jail’. vt. cut something to sharpen it, as a bamboo or wooden stake. `parek `patum-`tumnə patək vt. cut something by striking, with the blade glancing off and only touching slightly. `panam vt. braid something, such as a rope or hair. adum panam 196 `Panə -pii ‘to braid hair’. par- clfr. Classifier for a grinding’s `Panə name. Panə, son of Toopo. Fourth descendant from Abo Tani in the Galo lineage. worth of paddy; one set of paddy, construed as ground in a single mortar basin. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: cɨɨpar ‘mortar’. `papoo pamcəə vt. drape or lay one’s leg across somebody or something. Var: pamsəə (P). n. leaf parcel, generally made from a variety of “oko” leaf, in which fish or, less often, some other type of foodstuff is wrapped and baked directly on coals. par- clfqr. Quantity classifier for teams, groups or subsets of individuals. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. parək vt. cook by wrapping in “oko” nce. splinter. See: acək-parək ‘splinter’. vt. make or prepare a fire; leaf and baking in coals. pamnam `parnam vt. dry a wet thing by 1 setting near a fire. pamnam pack, as when sandwiching something between layers, as to cook. See: pamcəə. 2 vt. stoke a fire. ŋo `əmm `əm `parkaa ku. ‘I’ve made the fire already.’ parnam vt. divide up, divvy out `pamnam vt. set something which is relatively large or long against something else; set something down or position something against or along something else. `paŋgəə `la `yubduu. ‘He’s sleeping with his leg draped over someone’. labour or assign tasks or responsibilities in a group work situation. `kajuu, parmii `hilaa `ju. ‘Come on, let’s split up into teams (to perform separate but related tasks).’ `parmoo pason pahii nce. *. See: `agum-parmoo ‘menstruation’. `pamten lay something across something so that it cannot get up, as a paperweight. vt. n. sash; riband; cingle. Source: Assamese. Var: pasii (P). nce. See: pahii-pətək ‘jail’. -par vs:adv. spread; scatter. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is spread out or scattered widely around an area as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. unfold and spread out (e.g. something which has been rolled-up). vt. pahii-patək jail. Var: pasii-patək (P). n. Pahigat pii -pii taapar Var: Pasigat; Paasgat. name. headquarters of East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. nce. See: pii-nabbuu ‘rodent variety’. numr. four. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier `mopar make something spread/scatter, as by pushing along a surface. 197 piikoo `pin- expressions daapii ‘four sticks of (something)’. See: appii ‘four’. thought you had already seen me.’ piikoo n. stalk of “tapii” grass. -pik pii-nabbuu `piinam Var: pii-nabdoo (P). n. variety of rat. See: nabbuu ‘protruding lips’. vs:adv. overflow; burst through. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something bursts through a barrier or overflows a boundary as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. over-pour, causing the 1 vi. boil up; boil over; spill over as a result of boiling. pɨpik pikii `piicaa vi. boil up, as of milk. `iss `ə `piicaa `duu. ‘The milk is boiling up.’ water to spill over the edge of the cup. nce. *. See: horii-pikii ‘totally straight’. `piipok `piinam vi. boil over; boil up and over the side of a pot. `Piŋku-`Pintə `picik -`pin thin out branches, 2 vt. especially from bamboo. `hɨɨn akcəə `gadd `əm `piipuu `tokee. ‘Thin out the tree branches.’ vt. prick, as with a needle. name. name of a particular spirit of the Moopin festival. n. spotted munia. Lonchura punctulata. piinam `piinə `piiroo piilik -piK `beej `piik `kot `kee. ‘Go get an injection.’ n:num. eight. nce. See: nanoo-`piiroo 1 vs:adv. snap. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something snaps as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as a rope. 2 vs:adv. finish; complete. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an event is finished, in the sense of fully completed with no remaining parts to perform Usage: Generally not -`pin ‘blueheaded redstart’. nce. minnow of the mori fish. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: ŋopii-piilik ‘mori minnow’. vs:adv. just; just now; newly. Gram: Suffix indicating that the subject has newly, has just managed, or just came to, participate in the event/state indicated by the verb. Generally preceded by “-`ta” ‘about to’. Final consonant fully assimilates to any following consonant. `cent used to refer to non-continuous (temporally interrupted) actions. acin `əm `dopin gər `kula...‘After she had finished eating rice...’ `opin `motok! ‘Let (the rain) stop (before you go out)!’ `mempin `tokaa! ‘Stop talking!’ vs:nzr. point of completion. Gram: Nominalizer deriving a temporal nominal indicating a point in time when an action is completed. `agl `pidduu. ‘(I) just found out/came to know (about it).’ `bɨɨ `dot `pidduu. ‘He’s just eating now (I had thought he had already started).’ `ŋom kaagee ba `məət nammə, `iji `kaat `pidduu `naarem? ‘Are you just seeing me for the first time? I `poolo `loopin `lobə ŋo ager `rɨto. ‘I worked until the end of January.’ `rɨpin `pin- vt. finish a task; complete a task. clfr. Classifier root for homes 198 `pinii `pimmee or homesteads (complete living situations, including house and land). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `taayoo `gə a plot. pinnam (2) 1 vi. burst. `hurup `ə pikkaa. ‘His bladder burst.’ vt. 1 • pound something, as a nail with a hammer. ŋo kilii `pidduu. ‘I’m pounding at a nail.’ 2 • bore into something, as a `pinrɨɨ `golaa `piɲɲi go `gumaa. ‘Twelve houses on the hill did not burn.’ See: `ipin ‘home’. `pinii `pintə n. brain. nce. major area of a house, where the husband and wife and all the major members of the family are concentrated, when there is more than one such area and/or more than one family occupying the house. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `pintə-imik ‘primary fireplace’. boring insect into a wooden house pillar. tagik pinnam `hɨɨtak go ‘a plank which was bored into by a boring insect’. `pillɨk vt. pound something into something else, as a nail into wood. `pinnam (2) `pintə-`imik `pinnam n. primary fireplace in a house which has more than one fireplace. See: imik ‘fireplace’. 2 2 vt. thread a shuttle, in weaving. Usage: usu. occurs with associated noun “`tapin” ‘shuttle’. `tapin `əm `piŋŋam tob `ree? ‘Have you finished threading the shuttle?’ See: `tapin ‘shuttle’. vt. 1 • harvest cane. ŋo `pinnam (2) vt. undress; disrobe; ohoo `əm `pinduu. ‘I’m harvesting cane (for making rope).’ 2 • strip cane, as for making rope. take off one’s clothing. `nok lalɨk `əm `pitt `kee! ‘Take off your shirt!’ `pikkak-`pillak `piggor pipi nce. vt. take off all `pinnam (1) 1 vi. scheme; plot; plan someone’s demise; organize a party for the purpose of preparing an evil deed, as when preparing to raid another village; make collective preparations for acts of war. one’s clothes; disrobe until fully naked. vt. disrobe quickly. See: pipi-`roo ‘chick’. pipi-`roo n. chick; baby chicken. See: `roo ‘chick’. n. minor area of a house, where a second (generally, a male child’s) family or spillover from the main family will be concentrated around the “`pimmee-`imik” secondary fireplace. Generally found to the “`noohi-`peŋko” side of the “`pintə-`imik” primary fireplace, `pintuu `pindəə vi. plot all night long. `pimmee vi. plot all day long. `bulu Menlar `ne `pal `pə `əmlaa aloo `pindəə `ayo `pintuu kubbee yu. ‘They are said to have plotted to kill Menlar day and night.’ vi. fail or be thwarted, of `pinraa 199 `pimmee-`imik puunam and/or to the south side of the house. fully visible. `pimmee-`imik secondary fireplace in a house which has more than one fireplace. Often, the secondary fireplace will be located to the rear of the house, even as far as the women’s balcony, and was traditionally used by women during their menstruation periods, when taboo restrictions prevented them from entering the house. See: `imik ‘fireplace’. n. n. myna; particularly Indian rɨkpuu happuu Puugoo vt. wash clothes until fully clean and white. vt. cut (one’s hair) completely off, until bald. `pilam myna, but also denoting any number of myna subspp. and related spp. Acridotheres tristis. name. name of a dialect of the Galo language, formerly written “Pugo”. Mostly spoken in and around Aaloo, headquarters of West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. Variety of Galo most commonly used in popular songs. Name is drawn from a river confluence nearby to Along. Exhibits considerable internal diversity. n. summit; tip of a heap or conical object with mass/bulk, such as a mountain; conical protrusion from the earth, such as a dirt-heap. See: `lətɨk ‘base of a heap’. vi. bloom; sprout, as a 1 new plant. apuu ə `puuduu. ‘The flowers are blooming.’ vi. begin to bloom or sprout, of a flower or plant. puutuu pilii Var: pəlii (P). nce. chicken flea. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: pilii-`pɨkə ‘chicken louse’. Var: pəlii-`pəkə (P). n. pilii-`pɨkə `pisi puaa puu variety of tiny louse especially on chickens. n. needle. Usage: (P). found puunam n. half Assamese. kilogram. Source: puurəp puunam onom. whew! Usage: used to reference or imitate a blowing sound, as wind or breath. vt. tie. jutaa `əm puut 3 `kee! ‘Tie your shoes!’ vt. fasten to; tie onto or into. uŋŋaa `əm `ləmen `puulɨk `tokee. ‘Tie the thread onto the baby’s ankle.’ vt. tie something shut. aruu `əm puutum `tokee. ‘Close the hole by tying up (the sack).’ -puu vs:adv. clear; bare; white. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in the object being made white, clear, or bare. `ŋun lukɨɨ, lucɨr `əm, `puulɨk puutum rɨkk `əm `rɨpuu duu. ‘In April and May we clear up (the weeds) in the field.’ `ɨpuu vt. shave, as one’s face vt. rub something off, puunam with a razor. v:c.arg. be white in 4 colour. Gram: Generally occurs with nərpuu until the original surface is associated noun/adjective “yapuu” ‘white’ yapuu-puuŋek `duu. ‘extremely/overly white (as an 200 `puunam puɲi Irish person)’. `puunam `puumii puuluu uproot. Usage: (P). `hɨɨn `əm `puut `kee. ‘Uproot the tree.’ vt. n. flash flood; inundation. adj. white. Syn: yapuu. `Puuhɨɨ-`Dookee -`puk name. name of a Galo village in West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. vs:adv. pop. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something pops as a result of the activity indicated by the verb or out of a space (‘pop in’ or ‘pop out’). `pukkoo jinamə, rogjɨr `gonna tayɨɨ-tamaa `əm dokaaku! ‘Having opened (the container) up for them, a young hen ate it (the fly) right then and there!’ atuu `gonna boolup ə puktum `hiduu. ‘Some of them hid under a hat.’ `ləpum-pugnam ‘to pull/strip the skin from the front part of a foot, as of a chicken’. puŋkii Var: pumkii (P). n. pointy nose, as of the Caucasoid variety. adj. pointy, of a nose. `pukkoo puktum `puktə shaft of headed/metal-tipped arrow. n. n. lid of a water kettle. a `puŋkoo `puŋgɨɨ `pucup n. nose piercing; hole in the nose, through which an ornament may be inserted. bridge of the nose; cartilaginous spine of the nose. n. n. house sparrow. n. house sparrow. n. bravery; courage. adj. brave; courageous. -puk...-ree carelessly; sloppily; with no attention to detail. Gram: Split manner suffix vs:advs. indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb in a sloppy or careless manner, or with little or no attention to detail `pucup-pərəə See: `pucup ‘sparrow’; ‘variety of bird’. pərəə `pucəə `menpuk `menree məəpuk məəree `pugjɨr vt. say briefly; not go into detail. vt. think carelessly or hastily. See: apuk-aree ‘hasty’. Var: `pusəə (P). n. 1 • variety of meal packet usually made from an “oko” leaf, tied by a bit of rope. Used to carry snacks or meals which will be eaten while picnicking or travelling. tɨɨpak `pucəə ‘snack-pack to go with drinking’. 2 • wrapped package, in general, Var: naggar (P). n. shaft of a headless arrow, i.e. whose tip consists only of sharpened bamboo. vt. sell. as of clothing, food or others. vt. wrap something up (generally, foodstuff) in a packet usually made from “oko” leaf. See: pamcəə ‘parcel-bake’. `pugnam pugnam vt. pop, as when popping open or closed a sealed container, or when suddenly moving something or oneself into a visible or concealed state or into puɲi Var: puɲo (unspecified sub-dialect); piɲi (P). n. stirring stick; stick, usually fire-hardened, used for stirring food and 201 `pudur `pumpek manipulating things around the fireplace. puɲɲ `əm `jilaa `kee. ‘Please pass me the stirring stick.’ adj. flat, of a nose. pumtuu pumtup pumduu n. short nose. `pudur great barbet. Mostly green bird, about nightingale-size. Emits a persistent, repetitive, almost froglike call, particularly in afternoons and dusk, in choruses or solo. Megalaima virens. n. Var: `podor (P). adj. short-nosed. Usage: (P). n. tip of the nose. n. upturned nose; nose whose nostrils are clearly visible. `pumnam punam vt. backbite; talk about someone behind his/her back. ac-abbo `cin maaji `punna `kaaduu. ‘Many men also talk about people behind their backs.’ vt. tug, tug at, as something which is stuck and unwilling to come forth. vt. heap; make a heap; pile up; group together. `lɨɨpum-`pumnam ‘to make a pile of stones’. See: `apum ‘heap’. pumnam `punam vi. 1 • gather together, as a group. tao attɨr ə pumpom `la `dagduu. ‘The bees are swarming.’ vi. group or gather together. `puŋkər `laju. ‘Let’s gather together.’ `puŋkər punuam vt. spread; spread out, as 2 spreading a blanket on the ground. `ej puunam ‘lay out clothes or sheets, as a bedspread’. n. owl. `pupə `pubnam `pum- vi. laze about; lounge around; sit around uselessly. clfqr. Quantity classifier for heaps. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `apum by events; susceptible to the increase of qualities or experiences, especially of a negative kind. `kaanek `ko `taayoo `lo, uun go `gəlaa kudda; `noocin pumnam goku `na! ‘On top of your ugliness, you’re all wounded; you’re also a glutton for misfortune!’ 2 • overwhelmed `pumpaa n. 1 • beehive. `pumɲi go n. ‘two heaps’. hardened n. See: `apum ‘heap’. 2 • balloon-like or bag-like object, `pumkam `pumci `pumci 1 booger; hollow, rounded or spherical object. nasal mucus. Var: `pumsi (P). Var: `pumsi (P). adj. split, pumpaa nce. See: kɨrtə-pumpaa n. helicopter. ‘balloon’; roodə left n. ‘rodent (variety)’. nostril. 2 `pumpaa-roodə See: `pumpaa noseache. ‘airplane’. pumjak of the nose, whether by birth or accident. `pumpek `pumjap Var: `pumtar (P). n. flat nose; Mongoloid nose. n. odd number; number not divisible by two; uneven set. `pumpek go `nent `kaa. ‘Let an odd number come.’ 202 `pumpen pee- adj. odd, of a number. legends. Garrulax leucolophus. `pumpen n. odd one out. purnam vt. cover, enclose or wrap v. separate off from a group; be odd one out. See: `pumsi ‘even-numbered group’. `pumbək `pummə pumlaa `pumsi `pumsi Var: `pumbɨk (P). n. right nostril. See: `pumci ‘left nostril’. n. nose hair. something by drawing a sack or sack-like thing over it from above, as when covering a head with a monkey hat. `purbum puhuu expr. vt. wrap; enclose n. nce. nose fluid. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `pumsi-pumlaa ‘nose water’. 1 boom! Expressive denoting the sound of an explosion going off. Gram: must be followed by “`əmlaa” or a reduced form “`əm” `yoogo `bəree puhuu n. even numbered group of objects. nce. water coming from the nose. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `pumsi-`pumlaa 2 `əmlaa bugee `na? ‘What was that that just exploded “boom!”?’ -pee ‘nose water’. 1 vs:adv. cut. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an actor is cut as a result of the activity indicated by the verb `bɨɨ tupee hikaa. ‘He cut `pumsi-pumlaa n. water emerging from the nose. See: `pumsi ‘nose water’; pumlaa ‘nose fluid’. himself while kicking.’ `hepee ‘pull out (e.g. a knife from the hand) such that a cut results’. -pee -`pur vs:adv. blunt. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is blunted as a result of the activity indicated by the verb, as a blade. vt. blunt something by smashing it against a surface, e.g. `dɨrc `əm `pəəpur rə. ‘(He’ll) blunt the dwrci by smashing them (against the floor).’ See: `nappur ‘blunt end’. n. `pəəpur habitually use. Gram: 2 vs:adv. Manner verb suffix indicating that the subject habitually brings about the action indicated by the verb using something, such as a given tool. Does not indicate that action of the predicate itself is habitual - rather, it is the tool use or means that is habitual. ŋo `ləbək `ə tupee `duu. ‘I usually kick with my right foot’. vs:nzr. habit. Gram: Nominalizing suffix forming a noun indicating that the action indicated by the verb is a habit of the subject. `puruu whitecrested laughing thrush. Bird about myna-sized, light black, white chest/crest, medium, unremarkable tail. Lives in bands, makes a scratching sound in group situations, reacts to presence of humans by chattering. Figures importantly in certain Galo `menpee talking. n. habitual way of `rɨpee pee- n. habit. `hɨgɨ `ŋunukə `rɨpee `ə. ‘This is our habit.’ clfqr. Quantity classifier for bunches, as of bananas. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective 203 `peecəə `naapek roots. `kopak peepii ‘four bunches of bananas’. See: apee ‘bunch’. Var: `peesəə (P). n. bamboo French bean. `peeləə n:rel. side, of an object. `peecəə `bɨɨk `peeləə `bə `dakt `kee. ‘Stand over next to him.’ n. area, region, side or location, potentially in relation to another referent, as ‘this side of the mountain’. Gram: Generally indicative of an area in relation to an entity rather than a portion of the entity itself; i.e., ‘this “`peeləə” of the wall’ would indicate the floor space to one side of a wall dividing two rooms, e.g., rather than either surface of the wall itself. mat used for sun-drying things (such as chilli peppers). `peecəə-tarə n. strip of bamboo, usually about 2 feet long, to be used for weaving baskets or mats. See: `peecəə ‘bamboo mat’; tarə ‘bamboo strips’. n. bunch or cluster of things gathered in smaller bunches; bushel, especially of banana bunches. vt. cut something relatively small with a knife. vt. cut into two. adin `əm peec hit `kee. ‘Divide the meat between the two of you (by slicing it in two).’ peetɨr -pek peenam peeci vs:adv. along the way; on the way; while on route. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb ‘(while) on the way’ to somewhere else. Aci `Bogin peerik vt. snap something by cutting it, as a rope. vt. cut something out of vt. 1 • part, as hair down `gə nam `alo ŋoii `əm jipek to. ‘I dropped off a fish at Aci Bogin’s house on the way.’ impek -`pek `peelen `peenam a whole. the middle of a head. 2 • clear a path; make way, as vt. stop off at someone’s house; visit someone along the way. across through thick jungle. 3 • cross hatch; plait or weave in diagonal cross hatch, particularly of a “ɲoopee” flattened bamboo wall. cɨkc-`peenam ‘to construct a wall using cross-hatched flattened bamboo’. vs:adv. through a hole or gap; a threshold. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb directs an object through an existing hole or gap or acrosss an existing threshold. Does not indicate breakage or destruction of any barrier in the process. vt. cross a threshold, such as a gate. vt. throw through a hole. `impek `peeci vt. part something in two, `cippek a spear as hair. `Galoo `ɲijɨr `təət `yaana adum `əm `peec `duu. ‘Most Galo girls part their hair.’ `naapek peeren n. long bean; string bean; vt. through something through/across a threshold, such as an open window (without breaking it). 204 `peŋkoo pennam (1) `peŋkoo n. 1 • valley. (on the list)!’ vs:nzr. missed item. Gram: Nominalizing suffix deriving a noun with the sense ‘object missed from being affected by the verb’. 2 • intermediate position; some point or location between two separated objects (as two mountains, or a starting point and a goal) without necessarily being directly in the middle. `nun aum `gə `peŋkoo `lo ŋo `yubrə. ‘I’ll sleep somewhere between the three of you.’ n:rel. between; midst. ŋo bədaa orpen `peŋkoo `lo `rəduu. ‘I’m somewhere on the way (not at the beginning, not at the goal).’ peccaa n. fool; idiot; buffoon; moron. adj. foolish; idiotic. peccaa caaben n. something left out of distribution. orpen kaamaa `bə orkaa ku. ‘We didn’t leave out anyone, everyone got some (fish).’ (lit. ‘We distributed (the fish) such that there was no-one missed from the distribution who was properly due to be distributed-to’). vs:adv. separate from a whole; -`pen `jaaduu. ‘He’s too foolish.’ See: `yao ‘fool’. bloody come off, of a part from a whole. Gram: Result suffix indicating that one or more things are separated from a larger whole as a result of the action indicated by the verb ai `əm peccaa-caadɨr `peɲcəp moron; utter fool; complete nincompoop; buffoon. See: peccaa ‘fool’. n. Var: `pensəp (P). n. crux; `tupen kaa. ‘(He) kicked off someone’s teeth.’ `eppen hit `kee. ‘Write it on a different (line).’ valley, as between two mountains, or the joining area between two fingers, horns, or legs. `cəpen wall. vt. partition, as with a `laapen hinam pettak -pen n. variety of flat, waterborne leech. vs:adv. miss. Gram: Result suffix indicating that in bringing about the action indicated by the verb, an object is missed from being affected, although it occurred in a sequence of entities which were supposed to be affected. vt. omit, e.g. someone’s name when writing down a list of names. vt. vi. divide something amongst oneselves. `laapen hit `kee. ‘Take it and divide it amongst yourselves.’ nce. See: ukpaa-`pendaa `pendaa ‘orchid’. `pennam (1) eppen vt. break off, as pieces from a whole; divide something relatively soft and flat, as a rice powder cake. vt. n. vi. `peŋkok open. break torn-off something piece or məəpen omit; forget to include. oho! `nok amin `əm məəpen kaaku `lakaa! ‘Oho! I forgot (to include) your name `peɲjek section. pennam (1) balance; walk 205 `pennam (2) -`poo while balancing, as when traversing a rope bridge, edge, or pole, or of a tightrope walker. `pennam (2) as paper. 1 vt. tear something, something; surround something with fencing. `peggoo `tokaa. ‘Fence around it.’ `peyak `pecci vt. tear something into vt. tear something into many pieces. `pettuu n. soybean, usually eaten fermented and sticky, much like See: `agyaa Japanese natto. ‘fermented soybean’. n. jungle leech, particularly vicious, with a painful bite. vs:adv. pass a mark. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a mark or threshhold is reached or passed by the actor of the event indicated by the verb. cippo maa ‘not manage two pieces. `perro -po `pemmɨk-`pemmak `pennam (2) `pekkap vt. rip or tear something into a million pieces, as an unwanted letter. water, as 2 vt. spray when watering plants. vt. spray, resulting in something becoming wet. to hit the target you were aiming at with your spear, in the sense that your timing was off’. `peccik-pegɨk pennam (2) vt. of a spray of water, to hit something (usu. inadvertently). impo vt. swipe; wipe; sweep with some force, as when brushing an insect or unwanted debris off a surface. vt. sweep something away, so that it is no longer in the area. vt. be on time for some appointed purpose; make (a train); make (a bus). impo maa ‘miss (an appointment)’. -`po `pegaa vs:adv. 1 • cure; heal. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is cured or healed as a result of the action indicated by the verb. 2 • good. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb has a good result. Usage: Rare, possibly archaic. pekkak vt. sweep or wipe an area fully clean, leaving no unwanted residue remaining. vt. wipe or sweep away something unwanted, such that it is no longer disturbing. vt. sweep or wipe an area clean, as though to pretty something up or prepare an area. `mopo `poa vt. cure; heal, as of a `peppak peppuu disease. n. variety of basket, used for storing rice beer. n. spent rice beer; the residue of fermented rice remaining in a rice beer filter after it has been twice-filtered, and is no longer of value. `poee `pennam (2) `peggoo vt. partition; lay a rough fence or boundary. vt. -`poo fence around vs:adv. dare to do something; be courageous enough to do something. Gram: Verb suffix 206 -`poo `pootum indicating that the subject has the courage, daring or prowess to bring about the action indicated by the verb `rɨpoo ma ‘don’t dare to do sediment which collects at the bottom of a container of rice beer after it has been left to settle. (something)’. `məəpoo do? ‘Do you think you have the courage (to beat him)?’ ɲii attɨr lo ŋo `jappoo maa. ‘I don’t have the courage to speak in front of large groups of people.’ pookuu pookoo n. spoiled rice beer; rice beer that has over-fermented and has become bad in taste. -`poo `iipoo dooku `laa, `yubg kaa. ‘He covered them all up and took them to bed.’ vs:adv. cover up. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is covered up as a result of the activity indicated by the verb attɨr `əm n. skeleton or any part of a skeleton; bone completely cleaned of flesh, tissue and marrow. See: aloo-pookoo ‘bone; skeleton’. `poogɨɨ poo- clfr. Classifier for trunks, construed as rotund things, usually with some length, such as fingers, batteries, fat stomachs, and trees (with a focus on the trunk). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `hɨɨpoo `poot n. framework constructed for the suspension of a rice beer filter, whether of a relatively small variety of use inside the house (in which case it is generally constructed adjacent to the “`kagrɨɨ” storeroom) or a massive bamboo platform constructed outside the house for holding an equally massive “`poopur” filter. adj. cyclonic; like a dervish n. prime rice beer; rice `pooci `na ‘thick log’. `hɨɨn `pooɲi go ‘two trees (with focus on trunk)’. or a tornado. `poodaa -poo vs:adv. across the breadth of a field. Gram: Directional suffix referencing the breadth of a field. On intransitive state verbs, indicates that the subject is at the breadth or centre point of a field. On transitive activity verbs, indicates that the object is transferred across the breadth of a field. aloo loopoo `duu. ‘The sun beer from the first filtration, which should be both the strongest and tastiest. `poodɨɨ waterfall; properly includes the area/system only, not the water itself. Syn: `hidɨɨ. n. vt. 1 • cover. 2 • prepare loom for weaving, by `poonam is directly overhead/is at its zenith.’ cippoo `pookaa vt. throw a spear across n. black rice beer, made wrapping the strings lengthwise around the apparatus. the breadth of a space. from a fermented preparation of cooked rice and charred rice husks. `pookok vt. uncover; undo a covering. `pookok kaato, `ɲuŋmom kaakaa `hoo. ‘Undo your covering, let me see your face.’ `pookik n. rice beer sediment; `pootum vt. cover something up; close something up by 207 poonam -pok covering. `ɲaŋkoo, `ejj `ə `pootum hil doot `kee! ‘Fourth daughter-in-law, get under the covers!’ festivals. `Poomaa name. name of the second poonam vt. chop a trunk; chop down a trunk-shaped plant, as banana or bamboo; hack away when chopping, without great precision. vt. chop something in two, as a log. entity in the universe, generated by “`Opoo” and progenitor of “Maaji”. `poomər `pooro n. nce. See: yapər-`poomər ‘butterfly’. black Syn: `pookaa. rice beer. pootuu `poorɨɨ pootuu-pooyuu vt. chop into pieces. `kɨkaa gər `laa poomaa `bə pootuu-pooyuu `la `motuu ku `lakaa. ‘He just chopped it up haphazardly without properly measuring.’ n. rice beer from the second filtration, which is not as high in alcohol and not as good-tasting as the first. Syn: orɨɨ. `poolo `poonuu n. line dance; dance traditionally performed by women in festivals and when welcoming important guests. n. moon; month. `təə `pool `tə ‘this month’ (lit. ‘that moon up there’). `aa `pool `a ‘last month’. `aadee `na `pool `a ‘next month’. Var: `pool-`ao. n. half `poolo-`ao `poonə 1 n. fermented rice, through which hot water is filtered to make rice beer; rice which is well-fermented and ready for filtering. moon; moon at crescent moon. ‘moon’; `ao ‘child’. mid-month; See: `poolo `poolo-`louu moonlight. See: `poolo ‘moon’; `louu ‘light’. n. `poonə 2 nce. See: `dəənə-`poonə `poolo-`lorup -poo...-yoo ‘medicine’. n. dark moon; time of no moon. See: `poolo ‘moon’; `lorup ‘dark moon’. vs:advsr. randomly. Gram: Split directional suffix indicating that an action is randomly directed, or that a state or property is without distinct form. vt. kick in random `poopur n. rice beer filter; woven, basketlike object in which “`oko” leaves are layered. Used as a filter for obtaining rice beer from passing heated water through fermented rice. tupoo tuyoo directions. `poopɨr n. variety of rhythmic dance performed at the Moopin festival, in which mostly vertical jumping is performed by both sexes and all ages. n. hanging shelf. n. large-sized rice beer papoo payoo vt. chop haphazardly, with the blade landing at inconsistent points on the target. `poobo `poobor filter, -pok for used especially vs:adv. 1 • over the side. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that via the action indicated by the verb, the 208 `piipok poduu subject physically moves over the side of another entity, as a wall. 2 • beyond; over a limit. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb exceeds some proper limit in extent, manner, or degree. about after a fall. pokcik pogik `piipok milk. vt. boil over, as a pot of pokoo `pokok pogaa pogoo n. peacock. n. blackbrowed tree pie. scatter or spray everywhere, of a usually globular solid, or a liquid. `is pɨcɨɨ ə `oloo nammə, `iss `ə `ŋom pokcik-pogik `laa `mokaa. ‘The water pot having fallen down, the water scattered and sprayed all over me.’ vi. pogbum Dendrocitta frontalis. n. length of rope, as for vi. lie chest-down. Usage: (P). See: babum ‘lie using chest (L)’. making a Syn: `hoaa. lasso or noose. poŋgo-kaagoo `poɲik n. variety of ceremonial pillar. n. six-angled weaving pattern employed in the formation of bamboo basketry, as for the construction of ritual objects. n. noose; lasso; loop made at one end of a length of rope, to be used for capturing and/or restraining something, or for hanging someone to death. pognam vi. 1 • leap or hop, as a potaa potii frog, grasshopper, or a human playing leapfrog. tatɨk ə arum `ogo `poglen `ɲoolaa ku. ‘In the evening, the frog had jumped out (of the bottle) and away.’ `cɨɨdum `pokcaa `laa, `cɨɨkoo `pogloo `laa, `ŋunu poktər kaamaa `bə `poopɨr poggoo `laju. ‘From the upper village to the lower village, let’s go around dancing “`poopɨr” without end.’ 2 • bounce, as a bouncing bicycle n. paper; letter. Source: Assamese. siti-potaa ‘letter’. n. tip, as of a blade or pen; especially, a tip which is naturally present, and has not been formed for a purpose, as by whittling. ace. rolled up. Usage: usu. occurs in expressive compound. See: `potum-`polek ‘rolled up’. adj:expr. rolled up, `potum `potum-`polek like a bundle. tire. 3 • beat, of a heart. potom `potə vt. teach, as See: ponam ‘read’. in school. pokkik vi. race, of a heart; beat rapidly or furiously. `bɨəm kaar `əm, ŋo `aapuk `ə pokkik `duu. ‘When I see her, my heart races.’ n. license; especially, opium license (archaic). Source: Assamese. n. adolescent male chicken. nce. See: poduu-pomoo kaanii-potə ‘opium license’. podii poduu pokkup-poglek thrown into disarray or scattered all adj. ‘bird variety’. 209 poduu-pomoo -por poduu-pomoo migratory bird. n. variety of ourselves with the red clothing, eh.’ podoo nce. popɨr nce. See: popɨr-momɨr n:time. See: taɲum-ɲuŋkoo-podoo ‘huge ‘dusk’. thorn’. popɨr-momɨr 1 • be `ponam good. archaic form generally found only in idioms and fixed expressions. al to `pomaa to. ‘It may be good, it may not be good.’ vi. 1 Usage: Rare, 2 • be cured, of a disease; be dusk. Usage: usu. further compounded. See: kanə-popɨr-momɨr ‘dusk’. -pom better. `acc `ə `poduu `kunna `ree? ‘Is your illness any better?’ ponam 1 vt. read. vt. teach, as in school. potom `ponam vt. 1 • roll something up, 2 as when rolling a meal into a packet for use as a lunch set. vi. aum ə `yupt `bə aapom toku. ‘After that the three of them came together to sleep.’ impom `geekaa! ‘Go ahead (spoken to a group)!’ paapom `tokee! ‘Keep it together/as a group!’ vs:adv. collectively; together; as a cluster or group. Gram: Manner suffix indicating of a plural subject that action is taken as a group. Of a plural object, indicates that action is taken upon a group. `bulu pomum ‘smile’. nce. nce. See: ɲɨrsum-pomum See: poduu-pomoo `potum-`polum folded up. roughly pomoo Pomjar `pohum-`humnam vt. roll something up into a packet for carrying. ‘bird variety’. name. name of a spirit. Sacrificial altar to Pomjar includes an abstract effigy, made chiefly of bamboo tassles and fanning out at the head. n. variety of spirit. 2 • plait or weave relatively small bamboo or cane strips in vertical-horizontal (as opposed to diagonal) cross-hatch, as when making mats or baskets. `igin-`ponam ‘to plait “`igin” baskets’. pomji-kaaji pomnam ponam vt. sting something, as a 2 bee or a stinging nettle. vt. sting, causing a burn, vt. soak, as rice before cooking or clothes before washing. `ejj `əm pomt `kee. ‘Soak the clothes.’ ŋo `ambin `əm `pomduu. ‘I’m soaking the rice.’ n. variety potee -pop pombek-`beppak ritual. of sting or welt. vs:adv. covered. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is covered as a result of the activity indicated by the verb, as by clothing. poyoo -por nce. See: pɨgɨɨ-poyoo ‘goose’. vs:adv. disordered; shapeless. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is rendered shapeless or into disorder as a result of the yalɨɨ `na `ejj `əm, `hog `koopop rə `əi. ‘Here, we’ll cover 210 ɲumpor pɨ- activity indicated by the verb. ɲumpor vt. squeeze something such that it malforms according to its own properties, as a baked potato. vi. of something solid, over and under, using a tool, as when roasting something on all sides in a fire. polee `polee nce. n. See: ŋinci-polee. takpor break of itself such that the original shape is lost (as aged, humid wood). variety of severe, no-longer common disease usually affecting the foot in which internal boils form and take a very long time to heal. nce. thing of great redness in colour. Gram: usu. occurs as compound element See: `ɲɨkci-polɨɨ `mopor vt. deform something; change something’s shape without having a particular plan of how it should turn out. polɨɨ `pori n. studies. ŋo `porr `əm `riŋam kaaku. ‘I’m finished with my studies (I’m not going to school anymore).’ ‘irritated, of the eyes’; yamdɨɨ-polɨɨ ‘lesser coucal’. n:poet. cock; red rooster, in a ceremonial sense. polɨɨ gennam ‘hundred rooster sacrifice’. vt. 1 • study. `pori-`rinam ‘to study’. 2 • read. Source: Assamese. poləə n. animal leg (generally, a mithun leg) designated to be received by a “lampo” mediator. n. variety of stinging creeper. Urtica sp. n. money; Assamese. poroo porok Var: poyoo (P). n. flights of n. chicken. `poso an arrow. `pohaa cash. Source: porok-lugo n. cockscrow; time of the cock’s crowing; very early morning. porok luggo ku. ‘It’s cock-crow (time).’ See: porok ‘chicken’; lugo ‘speaking time’. `pohum n. variety of meal packet in which the target object is placed into a central cavity and wrapped around. vt. wrap into a “`pohum” packet. `pordɨr angular; having numerous faces and angles, as a diamond or prism. adj. adj:expr. bent out of shape; in the state of having an indefinable shape. pɨ- `pordɨr-`porci pornam vt. flick or shift something using a tool. `iŋin `əm `porbab `porlen tokaa. ‘Flick the yam out (of the fire) quickly.’ vt. shift something from side to side, clfr. Classifier for globular, ball-like or egg-like things, such as eggs, individual hills or mountains, automobiles or fat stomachs, as well as globular containers such as glasses and cups. Also classifies birds, probably as a function of metonymy. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. akii ə pɨtt porkup-porlek `duuku. ‘My stomach is getting fat.’ 211 -pɨɨ pɨcɨɨ -pɨɨ vs:adv. suffice; satisfy. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject is satisfied in terms of the action indicated by the verb, as when having eaten. `ɲijiɨr `kaaken nam something. `pɨɨpok-dooɲi See: `pɨɨpok dooɲi ‘sun’. setting sun. ‘reach the side’; n. `yad go `kaalaa `cin kaapɨɨ maa. ‘However much one looks at beautiful girls, it’s never enough.’ -pɨk məəpɨɨ -`pɨɨ adj. be satisfied; feel satisfied. məəpɨɨ maa. ‘I’m not satisfied.’ vs:adv. hollow out; carve out; erode. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is hollowed-out or carved-out as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vi. hollowed-out; carved-out, of soil. cokpɨk `əm `kopɨk `doona `əmlaa kodee ə yagloo `duu. ‘Since the underside is hollowed-out, the soil is cascading down.’ n. eggshell. nce. bird `kopɨk vs:adv. reach; arrive; achieve. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a goal or ideal state is reached, arrived-at or achieved as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `rɨpɨɨ `tokaa! ‘Complete it!’ `eppɨɨ `tok! ‘Complete writing it!’ `rɨpɨɨ-`mempɨɨ ‘do (some work) thoroughly’. pɨkuk `pɨkə pɨgɨɨ pɨɨnam 1 vi. suffice; be sufficient; be enough. `əg `cin pɨɨku maa. ‘That also was not enough.’ killer. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: pilii-`pɨkə ‘chicken louse’. nce. variety of goose. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: pɨgɨɨ-poyoo ‘goose’. n. goose, of uncertain vt. satisfy; suffice for; be sufficient for someone. `buppɨɨ ɲii `əm pɨɨd `bə `mot `kaa! ‘Make it (enough) such that it satisfies everybody!’ pɨgɨɨ-poyoo pɨɨnam 2 vt. steam-cook something vt. reach, as a destination variety. Migrate in February over the Galo area, generally flying at night. Call sounds like that of Canada goose. Var: pɨgɨɨ-poyoo. in bamboo, especially fish. pɨgnam `pɨɨnam one is moving to, an object one is trying to grasp, or an extent to which one is extending oneself or part of the body; arrive at a destination. `pɨɨci vi. reach; arrive at a destination. `pɨɨc maa. ‘I can’t reach (what I’m trying to reach with the tongs).’ n. v. vt. cut, split or strip things of relatively large size, as when splitting bamboo logs to make strips for fencing, starting by making a cut with a blade and following with hands, when pulling out a bamboo shoot by hand from the ground, or when stripping bark-layers off a banana tree; usually performed in rapid, jerking motions. vt. split something such pɨɨpaa `pɨɨpok pɨktak pɨcɨɨ variety reach of the cardamom edge of plant. that it cracks, in the above way. Var: pɨsɨɨ (P). n. pot; container 212 pɨcɨɨ-abə `pɨrsin for cooking. pɨcɨɨ-abə pɨtin Var: pɨsɨɨ-abə (P). n. lip of a vase-like pot. n. species of small-sized owl, including forest eagle-owl (Bubo nipalensis) and collared scops owl (Otus bakkamoena). adj. dry; desiccated. n. possibly whitecheecked hill partridge or rufousthroated hill partridge. Ground-dwelling, but with distinctively frenetic flight to 15-20 feet when frightened. Arborophilia atrogularis or Arborophilia rufogularis? `pɨtɨɨ pɨtɨr `pɨmɨr pɨmə Var: `pɨmur (P). n. egg yolk. chicken carrier; loosely-woven bamboo suitcase-like container used for transporting chickens, as to market or from one village to another. n. egg white; white portion of vi. bark, as a dog. n. variety of raptor, possibly an eagle. n:time. tenth moon cycle of the pɨraa pɨdin year, roughly mid-September to mid-October. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of October. an egg. pɨree pɨrɨk `pɨnam `pɨnam nce. See: `ŋopə-pɨree ‘mountain carp (variety)’. n. variety of jungle fowl, 1 1 • pour liquid, as 2 vt. when decanting from a pitcher into a glass. ŋo `iss `əm `pɨkaa. ‘I poured the water.’ 2 • craft; create; design or fashion probably kaleej Lophura leucomelana? pheasant. pɨrɨk-taakuu pɨrnə-`toguu sacrifice. variety’. something, as a handicraft; create something special. bird, in general. ‘kaleej pheasant’; taakuu ‘dove’. n. aspect of a mithun See: `toguu ‘ritual n. game See: pɨrɨk `pɨlen `pɨlɨk `pɨnam produce creation, as a god. vt. through vt. pour into a container, `pɨrsin as water. sharpen a blade by 3 vt. rubbing against a sharpening stone. vt. sharpen (a blade). `pɨrek `pɨnam-paanam `pɨpə n. livelihood; to make a living. See: `pɨnam ‘fashion’; paanam ‘get’. n. egg. `pɨpə-`ɨtɨɨ `pɨmuu n. omelette. See: `pɨpə ‘egg’; `ɨtɨɨ ‘rice flour (cake)’. n. variety of tailless bird, n. red jungle fowl. Formerly commonly hunted, now relatively rare due to overhunting. Female is black with distinctive, hatchet-like tail feathers, male black and red with coloured tail feathers. Generally found in small bands browsing the floor of semi-dense jungle, but also occasionally seen crossing wet fields to browse in adjacent bamboo groves. Very fast runners, they may also fly at speed for a certain distance when trying to escape a predator. Gallus gallus. 213 `pɨllɨɨ pəənam `pɨllɨɨ `pɨhik n:poet. stone. Usage: Goŋku. n. rufousnecked hornbill, a single-horned variety of hornbill. Aceros nipalensis. n. hornbill of any or varieties. See: `pɨhik perceived evidence. `əm, `əmb `rɨduu `pə. ‘Yeah, it may be like that.’ `kaaduu `pə. ‘There’s a good chance they’ll have some.’ `pɨhik-pəgaa pəə- all ‘rufousnecked hornbill’; pəgaa ‘hornbills in general’. clfr. Classifier for rice fields (construed as bounded areas of land). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `pɨhɨr -`pə adj. ultimate; best. pəənam 1 vs:adv. dried. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is dried-out as a result of the activity indicated by the verb `tippə hinam vt. dry something, such as one’s hands, by dabbing with something (such as a towel); wipe until dry. vs:asp. vt. hammer something; 1 beat or hit with a large sticklike or log-like object, such as a log or a sledgehammer (not fists). tabb `əm `pəək `tokee! ‘Beat the snake to death!’ `pəup smash something roundish and hollow by hammering such that it shatters, as a glass. vt. adj. dented from having vt. -`pə be supposed to; be obliged to. Gram: Obligative suffix 2 `pəəkop been hit with a stick. indicating that the subject is supposed to, or is under obligation to, bring about the action indicated by the verb. Occurs in limited contexts; generally, in nominalizations in “-nam” and when followed by the modal verb of Obligation “lagi” ‘want/need’. `hɨg `pəəjap-`pəəyap pəətəə flatten something by smashing it with something large. vt. injure someone by smashing with something large. ager `hɨgɨ `ŋunuk `rɨp nammə. ‘This here work was meant to be done by us (but instead it was awarded to some plains people).’ `dop lagi `duu. ‘We have to eat.’ `ləpaa `pə `lagee. ‘One should be in the middle (not too much this way, not too much that).’ pəətuu-pəəyuu vt. smash up; smash into many pieces. vt. `pəəmɨk-`pəəmak `pəərek pəəyak pulverize; smash into a million pieces. vt. when beating something with a stick, glance off hitting slightly. `pə pcl. may; might. Gram: Uncertainty particle indicating that the speaker is not certain whether the marked information is the case, but supposes that it could be, or else is bringing it up as a possibility for purpose of discussion. Generally understood as a guess based on deduction from facts rather than vt. smash a standing thing by hitting it with something large, such as a sledgehammer. pəənam v:c.arg. fart. Gram: Generally 2 occurs with associated noun “`əppə” 214 `pəəkap `pəglen ‘fart’ əpp pəəduu. ‘(He’s) farting.’ pəkaa-yuule n:poet. `pəəkap pəəmɨk -`pək vt. fart onto something directly, such as underpants. vt. fart too close too someone, such that the odour reaches them directly. ceremony/ritual practice (involving sacrifice) to please spirits. Usage: Goŋku. pəkam n. variety of migratory bird, vs:adv. perfectly; clearly; 1 unambiguously; properly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is brought about in a clear, proper, or unambiguous way. `kaapək vt. 1 • see clearly; clearly understand. problem go `əmlaa `kaapək `duu. ‘They see clearly that it’s a problem.’ 2 • identify clearly. possibly a type of heron or crane, flying southward in November/December and returning in March/April. Found in huge flocks of hundreds of birds. Black, with a white chest and a sharp, pointed beak for fishing. Seemingly rare, as some individuals shot down in the Galo area have been found to be fitted with leg bands. pəkii pəkoo `pəkə nce. See: cuurii-pəkii ‘variety of bird’. n. cob, of an ear corn/maize. See: təpə ‘maize’. `məəpək vt. decide; make up one’s mind; think clearly on a `məəpək `tokee, subject. `yoogo `laa. ‘Make up your mind, what’s wrong with you.’ `məəpək `doola agom `əm japt `kee. ‘Think clearly and then speak.’ of n. egg laying basket; basket made for a hen to sit and lay eggs in. pəgaa `rɨpək-`rɨrək vt. do something properly and quickly, finishing up without dally or delay. n. Great pied hornbill, a variety of double-horned Buceros bicornis. hornbill. See: `pɨhik ‘Rufousnecked (single-horned) hornbill’. n. wheel; circle. pəgoo -`pək vs:adv. damage. Gram: Result 2 suffix indicating that something which was previously intact is damaged as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `pərəə `gə aar adj. round; circular. pəgoo `duu. ‘(It’s) round.’ `pəgnam ‘The `əm `mempək `laku. “`pərəə” bird’s hind legs broke (as it stood up).’ vt. 1 • pull something off, away, or apart; break off e.g. one banana from the bunch; pull apart. 2 • crack knuckles or other joints. `pupək `mopək vt. damage something by pulling at it. vt. break something which had been whole and functioning. `pəkpuu vt. pull something completely off. `hɨɨn ann `əm `pəkpuu `tokee. ‘Pull off all the leaves.’ vt. pull something out `pəglen 215 pəksi `pənam or off of a containing or adhering body. porok arbaa `əm `pəglen gər `laa baat `kee. ‘Pull off the chicken thighs and roast them.’ Sun. Hung from sacrificial altars. pətaa Var: pəttaa (P). n. bird (generic). pətaa-`kobuu Var: pəttaa-`kobuu (P). n. pəksi crack one’s knuckles or joints. vt. own pəgnam `pəŋum `pəcɨr vt. sweep roughly, especially using a “hampək” fan palm broom. n. variety of bird. microfauna; small wild animals. See: pətaa ‘bird’; `kobuu ‘rodent’. pətaa-`baakə variety of eggplant. Solanum sp. See: pətaa ‘bird’; `baakə ‘variety of eggplant’. n. n. mug; container with a n. container; tin; can. n. corn/maize whether fresh or dry. kernel, pətak `pətup built-in handle. `pəjaa vi. of a chicken, make a clucking sound as when laying an egg, ‘pok-pok-pok-pokaaaa!’ n. duck. `pətup-pərəə `pəto pətəə `pəjap pəji pəji 1 n. container in general, of any size or type. See: `pətup ‘can’. n. variety of mustard plant, from which oil is made. n. nce. yellow-coloured See: pəji-pəmə ‘riverine n. temporary riverine maize/corn. 2 diversion’. pəji-pəmə n. cup. `pookaa pətəə ‘section of bamboo cut as a beer-drinking glass’. nce. See: təəkom-`pətək diversion, used as an element of a “rɨɨlen” fish trapping system. Poisoned, stunned fish are channelled by the diversion into a “`hibok” damming system, into which they can enter but cannot escape. `pətək `pədii ‘popping beetle’. n. popping maize; popping corn; variety of maize which pops very well, and generally used for this purpose. pəjək pəɲap n. 1 • variety of bird. `pəna 2 • coward. n. 1 • door to chicken-carrier (“pɨtɨr”). a 2 • ritual medallion woven from pcl. should; must. Gram: Hortative particle to an imperative sentence in “-to”, indicating that the speaker believes that the marked event is something that the listener is under obligation to perform, and shouldn’t have any cause to refuse. bamboo strips consisting of a circular frame filled in by a triangular weave incorporating three overlapping star of David shapes, with tassles hanging from the base. Associated to the `hɨgɨm dot `pəna. ‘You’re to eat this.’ `yupt `maabə, məət `pəna. ‘Don’t just go to sleep, you should think (about this thing of importance).’ `pənam n. comparison. Gram: 216 pənam pəlii `əm pənamə acin ə `doken `yaaduu. ‘Rice is tastier than bread.’ non-inflecting nominalized verb used as a standard of comparison ‘than’ or ‘in comparison to’ rotii pəmə pəroo pərəə nce. See: pəji-pəmə ‘riverine diversion’. Var: paroo (P). n. pigeon. pənam vt. divert water, as when preparing a dam or diversion trap for purpose of catching fish. `hibok-pənam ‘to fish using a “`hibok” dam’. vt. dam up; block the n. variety of 1 nightingale-sized bird with several unnamed, differently-coloured sub-varieties. 2 pərəə nce. See: `pətup-pərəə pətum ‘container’. flow of water. `bogdum `əm pətum paaku `ree? ‘Have you built up the dam head yet?’ `pərəə pəyəə `pəlɨk vt. divert the course of a n. chicken roost traditionally located on or below the balcony of a house, near to the “`gumrə” ‘pigpen’ and “`eeko” ‘latrine’. n. relatively moth, of any variety. river to the side or away from something. vt. divert the flow of a pərci-pərɲi Pərtin small body of water into something; divert the course of a river into a particular channel. `iss `əm koroo `bok `pəlɨk kaaku. ‘The water has been diverted via the ditch.’ name. name of a clan found in both Adi and Mising communities. pərnam 1 vi. rotate, of a circle or circular object. vt. 1 • rotate a circle or circular pəbee n. parrot; parakeet. Properly designates the redbreasted parakeet and Himalayan slatyheaded parakeet, but may be used to refer to parrots or parakeets of any variety. Psittacula himalayana/Posttacula alexandri. adj. clear, of an idea or an n. object, such as a car steering wheel. 2 • drive a car. Usage: Not used to describe the driving of a motorcycle. pərnam `pərnə tree. 2 vt. pack; make a packet. kopər-pərnam ‘to make a “kopər” rice packet. `pəbək `pəmar `pəmu `pəmɨk pəmɨr n. variety of nut-bearing explanation. brown or maroon-coloured maize/corn. n. cornsilk. n. chaff; dust-like particles Pərmee Pərlək pəlii name. name of a clan found in both Adi and Mising communities. name. name of a mountain in East Siang District. resulting from winnowing rice. See: ampə ‘rice husk’. n. dust. n. seed maize; seed corn; maize/corn kept aside for next year’s planting. 217 -baa baa- B -baa Direct perfective aspectual suffix. Gram: indicates vs:asp. - b work out.’ `aalaa `maab baa `rɨrə. ‘It may be that he won’t be able to come.’ `yubmab baa `rɨcin `duupə. ‘At the same time, there’s a chance he may not be sleeping.’ 2 • or (whatever else it may be). that an iteration of an anticipated event is brought about, completed and done with. Entails an understanding that the subject has direct experiential authority over the information, and must have witnessed it or otherwise directly experienced it, unless a further particle indicating information source is provided. Generally follows suffixes “-to”, “-gee” and “-ee”. ŋo acin dot baa. ‘I’ve already taken my meal.’ `əgəm `ment baa `lakaa! ‘What are you talking about, I already talked about all that!’ `bɨɨ acin doggee baa `yukə! ‘He’s already eaten, they say!’ `hodum `ə `tok `jukcaa eebaa! ‘The barking deer ran up via that way!’ Coordinating sense marking a noun as one of a serious of possible objects in a set, none of which are necessarily selected for reference in the action indicated by the verb. ac-abbo pɨrɨk `gobai taakuu `gobai `ablee `laa bəaa rəku. ‘The men may bring back pheasants or doves, according to what they may have shot’. 3 • or something like that; or `baa- clfr. Classifier for vocal durations or performances, such as songs, speeches, meetings, etc. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `baaɲi go ‘two songs’. See: `abaa ‘vocal duration’. someone like that. Dismissive sense used to follow an interrogative/indefinite pronoun, giving the overall sense ‘or someone/thing, whose identity I don’t really care enough about to try to discover’. `yəə `bai `aaduu. ‘Someone’s coming.’ `yəək `bai garii go `cootuu nammə `ɲii. ‘He stole so-and-so’s car.’ baa such pcl. 1 • or something; or some thing; suppose. Gram: Suppositional particle to a noun phrase or subordinated verb, marking the information as one of a variety of possibilities. Usage: some -baa vs:adv. 1 • fast; quickly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb has a fast or quick duration. Occurs immediately after verb roots. ŋo `rɨbab `rɨrə. ‘I’ll do it quickly.’ 2 • fast; quickly. Gram: Adjective root-combining sense; occurs after a repeated adjective root. ard dabaa if not all uses appear to be borrowed from or otherwise influenced by Assamese, and may not be used in all `Laree areas. Source: Assamese?. no baa inboolo, al `yaacin `rəcom. ‘Supposing you go, it may also `jaaduu. ‘He’s getting clever quickly (of a growing child).’ baa- clfr. Classifier for types or 218 `baaken `baayom varieties. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. baapii ‘four types (of domestic animals are kept in our pen)’. See: abaa ‘type’. agom `əm `meŋgap kumaa `bə, `baapak `coojoo `dagee. ‘Without taking the time to listen at all, he rejected (the proposal) right out. `baaken baakə n. unison. baanam n. variety of eggplant with quite small, extremely bitter berry-like fruits which are green when young and yellow when ripe. Usually boiled, the fruits are eaten as a side dish with rice or alone as a snack when drinking rice beer. Solanum indicum. See: `baayom ‘eggplant’. n. sitting area for the father 2 vt. bake by surrounding with coals; char; burn, but not completely incinerate. `bɨɨ `ŋom baatee kaa. ‘She burned me (by putting a match to my skin).’ baaŋek baanam vt. over-bake; overcook something being baked. meet; hold a 3 v:c.arg. meeting. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “kəbaa” ‘meeting’ kəbaa-baanam ‘to hold `baago of a house and/or other privileged men, to one side of a fireplace. Expert hunters are particularly entitled to sit here, where hunting equipment and the skulls of various animals are also traditionally hung. See: ɲoodəə ‘women’s sitting area’. a meeting’. `baanam v:c.arg. set up a house ladder. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`koobaa” ‘ladder’ `koobaa-`baanam ‘to set up a house ladder’. `baacaa `baaloo `baanə vt. set up a ladder to `baacak baajik `baatə `baatəə baanam n. small ladder; small set reach an upward space, as a house roof. vt. set up a ladder to reach a downward space, as a pit. of stairs. Rare, possibly archaic. `koobaa-`baacak small ladder. nce. See: ɲɨgji-baajik ‘eye crap’. n. large ladder; large set of stairs. Rare, possibly archaic. `koobaa-`baatə ‘large ladder’. nce. See: lakcəə-`baatəə n. element of a “`hibok” fishing dam, a slanting and diagonally-positioned pole used to fix the position of “`yamnə” filtering branches and/or leaves. ‘knuckle’. 1 vi. move, of a head. `bɨɨk dumpoo ə baan baab `duu. ‘His head is moving around.’ `baabuk `baaboo variety of ant, sweet-smelling, plentiful in April and eaten with rice. n. nce. See: taloo-`baaboo vt. move one’s head; bob one’s ‘swing’. head up and down. `baamin `baayom n. gaur. Bos gaurus. `baapak vi. shake one’s head back and forth, to say “no”. n. eggplant. Most general term for any variety of eggplant 219 baayɨr bajəə-bayəə which produces fruit of ample size (generally of purple or green-purple colour), whether oblong or ovoid, most typically. Solanum melongena. usual/normal place or natural place of origin. 2 • of the skin, to come off or be baayɨr adj. on target; near or close to the target; approximate. baayɨr maa! ‘He’s not even close (to being able to pronounce it correctly)!’ 1 made raw, as from the action of lime in the mouth (but not of fire); of skin, to peel. magbak-bagdee `laa! ‘Your penis might become raw (from too much intercourse)!’ baggoo `baalɨɨ `baalɨɨ baalɨɨ n. red rice. nce. See: `ukcɨɨ-`baalɨɨ vi. wander; migrate from place to place, as a refugee or itinerant labourer. 2 ‘firefly’. n. variety of headdress, especially as worn by young males from the groom’s side in a loud, semi-threatening welcoming dance at a Galo wedding. Var: Baasar. name. 1 • name `baglen `baglɨk bagren `baŋii baŋin baji vi. move out, as of an old house or village location. vt. move in, as to a new house or village location. n. pancreas. n. cane; walking stick. n. ripe “məəbə” melon, with Baahar of a Galo clan. 2 • name of a major Galo town of yellow-orange flesh. n. o’clock. Source: Hindi. `yad baji lo gərəp kubbee `hiloo? ‘What time did you get up today?’ n. flooring made from strips of bamboo. vt. vomit. lower West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. De facto capital of the Lare Galo dialect area. bai n. element of a “`hibok” fishing `batak dam, one of several horizontal beams running along the breadth of the dam; used for fastening materials such as “kodap” banana leaf packs, and for providing overall support to the structure. banam `baom vi. gag, as when having eaten something unpalatable and feeling oneself on the verge of vomiting. `baɨr vt. make red-hot, as coal-fired `bagom-`bayom iron. `orok `əm `baɨr gər `laa pauu `tokee. ‘Fire the dao and flatten it out.’ vi. vomit uncontrollably, as someone too drunk to maintain control over his body. bagnam vi. 1 • migrate; move, in bajəə-bayəə the sense of moving house; completely shift one’s base from one place to another; leave one’s vi. vomit all over the place; puke wildly. bajəə-bayəə `laa `motuu ku `lakaa. ‘He puked all over the place, my goodness.’ 220 `bapak `biikə `bapak `balɨɨ banek vt. eject via vomiting, as excess alcohol accumulated in the stomach. vi. feel like vomiting; feel (loosely-woven) baskets of any qualifying substance, such as firewood or fan palm leaves. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: əbar ‘large queasy; feel Var: `balɨɨ-bayoo. nce. nauseous. loosely woven conical basket’. See: banek-nellɨɨ ‘bridal clothing’. `bar- banek-nellɨɨ babum n. variety of red-coloured clothing traditionally worn by a bride. Var: pogbum (P). vi. lie chest-down; lie down using one’s chest, whether on the floor or (more commonly) atop someone else. Classifier for discs, including rupees (whether coin or paper), plates, and brass discs. clfr. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `nɨgjok `barlii ‘new brass plate’. See: `abar ‘disc’. bargɨɨ n. frame spine for an “əbar” basket. `Bargra vt. carry someone, especially a small child, atop one’s chest while lying down; allow or cause someone to recline atop one’s chest while one is also lying on one’s back. See: bamnam ‘lie face-down’. Var: `Bagrə. name. name of a cluster of Galo villages to the west of Aaloo, as well as of a clan of Galo originating from there. n. small conical basket of loosely-woven bamboo. See: əbar ‘largely loosely-woven conical basket’. vt. intone; utter; say, speak or chant in a formal, ritual style, particularly of a priest performing a ceremony. n. sand. See: sili ‘sand (Asm)’. `barci -bam vs:val. together. Gram: Collaborative suffix indicating co-participation in an action. When occurring without Reflexive suffix “-hi”, indicates that the subject participates in an event ‘together with’ the object. When occurring with Reflexive suffix “-hi”, indicates that a plural subject participates in the event “together”. `bɨm ŋo barnam `balii -`bi inbam to. ‘I went with him.’ `bulu rəbam `hiduu. ‘(They) live together.’ dobam `hiken maarə. ‘It won’t be good to eat these things together.’ vs:adv. pair-wise; as a pair. Gram: Dual verb suffix, indicating that the action indicated by the verb is accomplished by two actors. Must be followed by Reflexive suffix “-hi.” bamnam vi. lie face-down; lie down, with one’s chest to the ground. See: babum ‘lie using the chest’. clfqr. `buɲɲə ərap `əm `cɨkkok `paalaa, kaabok `bihi to. ‘The two of them opened the window and looked down as a pair.’ `nuɲɲə imbam `bihi `tokee. ‘The two of you go together (as a pair).’ biikam `biikə n. fallowing field, left for a bar- Classifier for “əbar” period of 6-10 years. n. variety of river spirit. 221 biijɨɨ `binnam (2) biijɨɨ n. fallowing field, left for a period of around 1-3 years. biinam biiro vi. trickle; flow relatively slowly, as water flowing through a small brook. suffix indicating that something is rendered clean, bare, or naked as a result of the action indicated by the verb. ɨɨ `əm `ɨgbin rə. ‘I’ll weed n. field fallowing for a period of 3-5 years. vs:adv. somehow manage; manage one way or another; muddle through. Gram: Manner out all the weeds.’ ann ə `obin kaa. ‘The leaves (of the tree) fell completely off (leaving it bare).’ -`bin -`bik suffix indicating that an actor manages to bring about the action indicated by the verb somehow, one way or another, although possibly not with any finesse or expertise. Usually semi-reduplicated as “-`bik...-`lik”. `aɲɨɨ `ə `ɲɨɨbik kaa. vs:adv. miserly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is acting miserly in terms of the action indicated by the verb, or in a selfish and ungenerous manner. vi. be miserly in eating; not share food. See: `hibin ‘miser’. n. goat odour; stench of `dobin `binkɨr goat. ‘The year passed without consequence (good or bad).’ `binnam (1) -`bik...-`lik vs:advsr. somehow; managing, but without finesse. vt. snap something, as a rope. ŋo ohoo `əm `binduu. ‘I’m snapping the rope.’ vi. 1 • snap, of a rope by itself. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that subject manages to bring about the action indicated by the verb somehow, but without finesse. ohoo ə `binkaa. snapped.’ ‘The rope 2 • kick the bucket; buy the farm; `kaabik-`kaalik somehow manage to watch despite not being able to see clearly, as a TV with bad reception. vt. vt. muddle through one’s life; somehow manage to put a life together, one way or another. vt. die, in a euphemistic sense. `bɨɨ `ijjaa `biŋkaa ku. ‘He just died.’ `bintuu vt. snap a rope in two, `rɨbik-`dolik more or less at midpoint. `nətuu `əm `bintuu `tokee. ‘Snap the thread in two.’ `binrik vt. snap, of a rope (at any vi. 1 • pass, of time. point). `mobik-`molik somehow manage to do something; muddle through something. `mobik `molik `laa ŋo `momum `duu. ‘One way or another (without finesse) I manage to do it.’ See: -`bik ‘somehow’. n. kid; baby goat. `binnam (2) 2 • muddle through, of a person `biɲcuu -bin and an event or task; do something by hook or by crook. `bidd `bə ŋo `momum `duu. ‘Somehow I manage to get through it.’ `bidd `bidd `bə, `bidd `bidd `bə, `rəlaa `na. ‘Slowly and gradually, muddle through your life.’ vs:adv. bare; naked. Gram: Result 222 binnam (2) `buucuu binnam (2) vi. 1 • flow, of a river, with relatively constant force. `hibuu `ə `bɨɨbab `bidduu. ‘The river flows quickly.’ 2 • have loose bowels. sound made when whispering. `nuɲɲə `yoogo `laa `bis-`bos `əmlaa `moduu `ko? ‘What are you two whispering about?’ `bissok adj. akii-binnam (2) vi. have loose Var: `biisok (P). n. stripe; single line across a surface. motion. aloo biddəə, `ayo bittuu. ‘I’m having diarrhoea day and night.’ `bidduu flow upward or upstream, as a section of a river with a backward-returning leg or a north-flowing river. `iss `ə bippoo `laa, biyyar `laa, biggoo `laa `rɨnamə `bidduu `na `garɨɨ `bəcin `kaaduu `bə `rɨduu. ‘The water’s flowing across, along the length, around, and sometimes it looks as though it’s flowing upward.’ vi. vi. flow to the side, as a vi. racing-striped; with a contrasting coloured line across the surface. `bɨɨk `ɲuŋmoo `bissok `dagla `kaa. ‘His face is scarred, of all things.’ `bissok-`bibbok Var: `biis-`biibok (P). adj:expr. many-striped, as a tiger. See: `bissok ‘stripe’. `buin n:poet. rat. Usage: Goŋku. `buin `əm baabin `lamaa; ɲimaa `meŋkam `lamaa. ‘Mouse (hair) can’t be totally burned (off); poor people can’t be forced (to produce what they don’t have, e.g. a donation)’. clfr. Classifier for pipes or biyyəə `billoo `binpin `binlii diverted river. flow downward and/or southward. n. goatskin. buu- tubes, in the sense of hollow entities with extension, such as poles (especially bamboo) and rivers. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `buuken ‘one piece of bamboo’. See: abuu n. breeding goat; goat used to establish a breeding line. -bin...-kak vs:advs. clean; clear. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something is completely or fully cleaned away or cleared off by way of the action indicated by the verb. ‘pipe’. -buu ann ə rubin rukak `duuku. ‘The leaves of the tree are completely shaved off (of themselves).’ See: -bin ‘bare’. vs:adv. into a space. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that an action is directed from the outside of a space into a space’s interior, as through a window or hole. `og aruu `ogo ohoo `bəm piibuu geek. ‘String that rope down there through the hole.’ vi. look into a space from outside, as through a window or other hole. n. baby mouse. `birii nce. See: `ugjii-`birii ‘horned kaabuu `buucuu owl (variety)’. `bis-`bos Var: bɨs-`bos (P). expr. whisper; whispering sound; the 223 buunam `bukkoo buunam 1 vt. 1 • suck; slurp. 2 • shock something, as electrical current. (especially) or perhaps rice, and is submerged through the action indicated by the verb. `ɨlɨɨ `ə `jɨɨbuk kaa. ‘The stone sank.’ 2 • burst. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is caused to burst or sprout forward as a result of the action indicated by the verb. buugap buujin vt. stick to something by means of sucking, as a suckerfish. vt. suck something dry; suck out absolutely everything. See: tacap-buugap ‘suckerfish variety’. `ɨbuk vt. plunge and soak, as one’s feet in a pool of water. `naabuk `buk- buunam `buupii vt. scold someone. 2 Usage: (P). See: roonam ‘scold (L)’. throw something into a substance, especially water or perhaps rice. vt. clfr. Classifier for pods or variety reddish-brown jungle rat. n. n. rat skin; mouse skin. Var: `buum. adj. of `buupin `buumə bulbous, bulging sections, as jackfruit pods, sections of an orange, or halves of a vagina. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. untraa `bukpii go dressed up; decked out; copiously ornamented, of a woman or a man. `buum hit `kee! ‘Get dressed-up!’ Var: `buumə-`aaren (P). adj. fully `buumə-`raarə dressed-up; fully decked-out. See: `buumə ‘dressed-up’. `jilaa `kee. ‘Please give me four sections of orange.’ `bugum ‘three pods’. See: `abuk ‘pod’. buktak n. hardcover sheath for a `buuyɨr `buulii n. riverbank. Usage: (P). See: rɨɨyɨr ‘bank; shore’. n. plague of rats, triggered by the flowering of bamboo around once every ten years or so. `buulii `jugduu. ‘A plague of rats is in effect.’ n. animal leg (usually, a mithun leg) designated for giving to a priest. n. baby mouse. dao/machete, usually with hardened bamboo planks along the sides, often covered by dried barking deer skin. See: hobuk ‘soft-cover sheath’. `bugnam vi. 1 • burst; pop; explode, as a gun, bomb, or crackling firewood. 2 • sprout, of a new plant from `buuləə `buo -`buk the ground or hair from the body. `am bugd `beɲɲo. ‘I think they have hairs on them.’ `aə `acɨr-`abuk-`bugna `ɨlɨɨ `əm `laakaa to. ‘Get that stone which is bulging with pockmarks.’ 3 • emerge and shine, of a star at vs:adv. 1 • into a substance. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is transferred into a substance and/or a space containing a substance, such as water nightfall. `bukkoo a hole. vi. burst open, creating 224 bukpik bumpoo bukpik vi. puncture; burst, of something under such as a car tire. pressure, bukci (-bugii) vi. burst apart; blow apart. tatɨk `əm `hamjap nammə, akii ə bikci-bugii `laku. ‘Having stepped on the frog, its stomach blew completely open.’ expr. negative sentence). When following, usually references a generality, as ‘all (in this category)’ (in a positive sentence) or ‘not all (in a category *or* group)’ (in a negative sentence). bugrak bang! Expressive denoting the sound of a gun going off. Gram: must be followed by “`əmlaa” or a reduced form “`əm” bugrak `əmlaa `ləɲi go buggee baa. ‘The gun went off twice “bang!”‘ `uŋŋaa `buppɨɨ `ə `kabduu. ‘All babies (in the world) cry.’ `uŋŋaa `buppɨɨ `ə kabmaa. ‘Not all (the) babies (in the group/in the world) cry.’ `buppɨɨ `uŋŋaa `ə `kabduu. ‘All of the babies (in the group) cry (there are no non-criers in the group).’ `buppɨɨ `uŋŋaa `ə kabmaa. ‘None of the babies (in the group) cry.’ *or* ‘No babies cry (in the world).’ -bum 1 vs:adv. cause dust to disperse; bugluk n. variety of small edible cause an area to become dusty. Gram: Result suffix indicating that in bringing about the action indicated by the verb the subject creates or causes the dispersion of dust. mushroom commonly found in summer; flat-capped and growing in clusters. `buɲi Var: `muɲi (P). pro. they (dl.); they two. Gram: Third person dual pronoun `nuɲɲə `iɲyaa `tokee, dəgbum ‘stir up dust while walking’. `rɨbum dobum `deekə! ‘Don’t make the dust scatter!’ ŋo `yumii `duuku. ‘You two go instead, I’m getting tired.’ -bum invade someone’s 2 vs:adv. space. Gram: Result suffix indicating `buduu `bunam `buppaa nce. See: uduu.`buduu ‘horned owl (variety)’. vt. uproot something, as a that someone’s personal or proper space is invaded carelessly as a result of the action indicated by the verb. tree or one’s See: `punam ‘tug’. facial hairs. inbum vi. walk in front someone without care. of n:qual. all (of them). aum `rɨbum bumnam bup`paa tarɨk `duu. ‘All three of them are correct.’ See: `buppɨɨ ‘everyone’. vt. in doing something, invade another’s space. `buppɨɨ Var: a`bɨɨ (P). pro. vi. lie face-down or chest-down; lie on one’s front, like a cow. vi. lie facing downward/toward the south. vi. everyone; everybody. `buppɨɨ `ə `menna. ‘Everyone said it.’ n:qual. all; every. Gram: Qualifying noun either preceding or following another noun. When preceding, usually references a particular group, as ‘all of (them)’ (in a positive sentence) or ‘none of (them)’ (in a bumbok `bumlɨk lie down something, such as a bed. on bumpoo vi. lie breadth-wise; lie across the breadth of a space. 225 bumyar -bee bumyar vi. lie lengthwise; lie across the length of a space. bumbə-`lumlik adj. alkaline or flat flavour, i.e. a mixture of sugar and salt, as oral rehydration formula; a bland, sickly, lifeless flavour which is generally unpalatable and difficult to swallow without gagging. bunch would have known.’ `ɲipak acin-oo ə `bulu `doken maa. ‘Non-hill-tribal food and all that sort of thing is not tasty.’ buluu nce. explode into white; explode, such that something white in colour results. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: təpə-buluu ‘popcorn’. bulum burii n. variety of fruit-bearing tree found in jungles. The fruit, which is highly prized and may also have a mythological value, is roughly apricot-sized, green when young and yellow when ripe, with a sweet-and-sour flavor which becomes very sweet when fully ripe. The bark of the tree may also be eaten. Var: `bul; `munu (P). pro. they (pl.); they all. Gram: Third person plural pronoun Usage: generally n. variety of wild fruit, sour, yellow when ripe, strawberry-sized and with a large seed. int. hey fellas! Usage: Shouted interjection used `buləə when trying to round up some people and get them to come along. -bee `bulu half-heartedly; 1 vs:adv. half-seriously; neglectfully; carelessly. Gram: Manner suffix used to refer to human plural referents, however may occasionally be used to refer to definite non-human/inanimate referents if their plurality is important. `bul `cemmaa. ‘They won’t know.’ dem. etcetera; and so on; and those sorts of things. Gram: Non-referential sense of the third person plural pronoun which follows a plural noun phrase. Indicates that in addition to the referents mentioned by the noun phrase, some other similar referents are also involved. When following nouns mentioning humans, has a sense like ‘and his/her bunch’ or ‘and those guys’. When following nouns mentioning non-humans, has a sense more like ‘and so on’ or ‘and those sorts of things’. `ŋok ab `bulu indicating that through the action indicated by the verb, the subject acts in a half-hearted or careless manner. Also occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-bee...-lee”. Jiikee `gadd `ə `nuubee hiraa `laa. ‘The Jiikee spirits just half-heartedly stomped on (the stick).’ -bee 2 vs:asp. ever; ever been. Gram: Experiential perfect aspectual suffix, marking an event which is viewed as a single iteration at some unspecified time in the past, fully completed, which in no way continues up to the present time of speaking. Generally focuses on the experiential nature of an event, construed as an experience which has happened at least once in someone’s experience. gəku bee. `censae `na. ‘My father and his `əmbə `rɨgərə...‘I had brought it. However...(it’s no longer with me or I lost it).’ `no Aaloo `tolo `caakaa `beeree? ‘Have you ever been up to Along?’ Ab Tani `bɨɨ 226 `beeji `mobek `Ɲimek `tolo rəku `beepə. ‘I suppose that Abo Tani lived up in Tibet.’ `beehor `beeji n. needle, as for sewing or injections. Source: Assamese. n. bachelor monkey; loner May strictly denote golden langur, although extendable to any other variety of langur. Trachypithecus geei. vs:advsr. n. langur. -bee...-lee beetum (male) monkey, considered to be an agent of “Japom”. Taboo to kill. beetɨɨ beedəə n. crowd of monkeys. n. macaque. vt. 1 • chant; invoke or Split manner suffix indicating that the subject acts in a halfhearted or neglectful manner in bringing about the action indicated by the verb half-seriously; carelessly. Gram: half-heartedly; neglectfully; kaabee kaalee `rɨbaa-`rɨlee beenam ward neglect in looking; not look carefully. vt. vt. do something off ghosts or spirits. Usage: Generally occurs together with associated noun “`ui” ‘spirit’. doogum-door `rɨpin `doobə beekaa to! ‘Pray for the storm to stop (speaking to a shaman)!’ 2 • curse someone or something half-heartedly, half-seriously or without concern. `rɨbee `rɨlee `yookaa! ‘Don’t do it half-seriously like that!’ See: -bee ‘half-heartedly’. `beo by appealing to ghosts and spirits. nce. monkey baby. Usage: archaic; usu. occurs in compound. See: `beo-`koolɨɨ ‘variety of monkey’. beenam v:c.arg. drool. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`nabbee” ‘drool’ `nabbee `beo-`koolɨɨ `beeduu. ‘Drool’s coming out.’ `beegom vi. drool improperly or making a mess, without regard to domestic conditions, as a baby who is not yet conscious of his actions. nce. See: `tətə-`beenə n. variety of monkey, very small, with a distinctive red posterior. Possibly a variety of gibbon. See: `beo ‘baby monkey’; `koolɨɨ ‘red buttocks’. vs:adv. -bek release or start something. `beenə `beebo ‘blackbird’. n. variety cardamom plant. n. variety cardamom plant. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is released or started up as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as an engine or something which has been under tension, as a trap. vt. kick-start; release by kicking or start up (a motor) by kicking. vt. release (a trap) by n. breakfast. vt. of of wild wild tubek `beelak beeluu dabek dobek n. crowd of monkeys. nce. See: `tatum-`beelum stepping. `beelum ‘spider’. `mobek make something 227 bekkap bennam (2) suddenly release, as a trap. bekkap bekko n. hair band or hair-tie. Var: bello (P). n. bulbul, or Indian nightingale. May include more than one species of bulbul, including but possibly not limited to the redwhiskered bulbul. n. variety of tree, used in or ‘often’, or may mean that an object is affected ‘a lot’. Can also have the sense ‘too much’. On state/property verbs, usually has a plain intensifying effect, i.e. ‘very much (so).’ gəben `lamaa! ‘I can’t hold beɲji construction planks. of “taluu” wall `beɲjo n. variety of very large tree (the urine in) any longer!’ ɲidoo oben kaaku. ‘It’s rained a lot.’ torben `duu. ‘It’s very strong’. ŋo `hiloo-`məroo tɨɨben `jaa kaaku. ‘I’ve been smoking too much recently.’ Tamik `bɨɨk ɲimm `əm iŋgə `benduu. ‘Tamik always brings his wife.’ 2 • a lot; too (much). Gram: Root-combining adjectival suffix, following a repeated adjectival root. with very strong wood, used for sawn planks in house construction. Closely related to “gaalɨɨ”, but with a much less red wood, and some differences in the pattern of the bark. `bɨɨ ard daben `jaaduu. ‘He’s too clever.’ tiihir hirben maa. ‘It’s not too sweet.’ bet-curum bettum n. kingfisher. `bentə Var: deb-curum. n. variety of bird, probably Var: `pentə (P). nce. See: `bentə-`hobuk ‘house lizard’. `bentə-`hobuk Var: `pentə-hobup (P). n. gecko; house lizard. a variety of nightingale, myna-sized, red-fleck on posterior with white-tipped tail. Believed to have the power to make people dull-minded and speech-impeded. `bennam `ben pcl. seems. Gram: Evidential particle indicating that the speaker is not certain of the truth of the statement, but supposes it to be the case on the basis of evidence Usage: Often followed by “da” or vi. of a part, to come off or fall off of its whole; of a whole, to have a part come off or fall off. `orok `ə `beŋkaa. ‘A part of the dao fell off.’ aii ə `beŋkaa. ‘(My) tooth fell out.’ vt. separate off; remove; remove a part from a whole. aii `əm `bent `kee! ‘Pull out your tooth!’ “kəm”. `is `huduu `ben. ‘It seems she’s taking a shower.’ `bɨɨ `duumaa `benda. ‘It seems he isn’t home/there.’ `bɨɨ inee baa `beŋkəm ‘He seems to have gone.’ bennam (2) vi. spring, as a trap; be released, of any object kept under tension. `yubla `doona `ləken `ə berrəp kaa. ‘So then, the group that was lying asleep at once sprang up.’ vt. 1 • flick or flick at something, -ben vs:adv. 1 • lot; a lot; frequently; often. Gram: Intensifying suffix with the basic meaning ‘a lot’. On activity verbs, can have the sense ‘frequently’ as with one’s finger or with an instrument such as a pencil or twig; twang something, as a taut 228 bekkup-bellek -boolo rubber band; strum something, as a guitar; flick or catapult an object such that it flies. `ɨlɨɨ `əm ŋo `hɨɨdaa `ə begaa kaa. ‘I flicked at the stone with a stick.’ 2 • trill, of the tongue, as when over or past an object. akcəə `əm `comboo `la kaamaa boolo, `kaapaa maarə. ‘If you don’t peek over the branch, you won’t see it.’ 2 • overly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is over-acting, or overdoing it, in terms of the action indicated by the verb. pronouncing a vibrating ‘r’; speak, in a rapid staccato manner. Aci Bocak `maajib `bebbab `bedduu. ‘Elder Brother Bocak really speaks quickly (in a staccato manner).’ abbɨ! ŋo acin `əm `doboo hito! ‘Wa! I ate more than I should have!’ adjs:rcom. too; too much. Gram: Manner suffix to a repeated adjective root, indicating that the quality denoted by the adjective is the case too much or to an unacceptably great degree tiihir hirboo `hiduu. ‘It’s bekkup-bellek twist and turn; roll back and forth, up and down, as a restless baby. vi. vi. flick or `bebboo (`belloo) bembo beree catapult an object such that it goes over another object. n. takin, a large ungulate too sweet (not tasty anymore).’ bootuu boodə found in cold, mountainous areas. Budorcas taxicolor. n. subtype of yellow bee, n. ritual sacrificial altars. element of possibly a yellowjacket, although generally quite small. n. umbrella hat; a kind of massive woven hat, concave and shaped like a rotund gravestone, used as an umbrella. `belloo -bo n. variety of nightingale, `boonam with a traditional restriction on eating. taboo vs:adv. enviously; covetously. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts enviously or with untoward fascination. vt. cross or cross over an obstacle, such as a mountain or hill. Usage: Not generally used to describe the crossing of rivers. nce. See: hosi-`boobii `boobii boobɨɨ ‘porcupine needle’. n. odour; stench. ŋoii boobɨɨ `hupaa `duu. ‘I can smell fish (on my fingers).’ adj. odiferous; giving off smell; kaabo look at someone with envy or unusual interest, as when they have acquired a stunning new possession. vt. Var: kaab. smelly. ŋo boobɨɨ `duu. ‘I’m stinking/giving off smell.’ `boo n. assistant to priest/shaman, particularly chanting. a in `boolup -boolo n. hat, especially a traditional Galo hat of bamboo or cane. -`boo vs:adv. 1 • over; across; past. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the subject moves or is directed Var: -bool. vs:nf. if; when. Gram: Conjunctive coordinator with conditional, hypothetical or 229 -bok `bojɨɨ co-temporal meaning. ɲidoo obboolo al haee. ‘It would be good if it would rain.’ within the diverted river arm. See: `hibok ‘fishing dam’. gobboolo, ŋo `Galoo agom `əm al `bə `mensaa. ‘If I (were) Galo, I’d speak Galo well.’ `bɨɨ boolo, ŋo immaa rə. ‘If it’s him, I won’t go.’ pcl. if; in the case of. Gram: Sense of the conditional coordinator marking nouns and copulas. ŋo `Galoo `bokkə from somewhere downward, southward, or downriver of the place of speaking. `bokkə `caalen `laju. ‘Let’s go up from down there.’ pos. `bokpen -bok vs:adv. downward; southward. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed downward in elevation or southward. vt. throw a spear downward or southward. vt. look look southward. nce. n. riverine island; island formed by the temporary diversion of a river into two or more branches. adj. long, of a dam. n. head of a fishing dam, `boksoo `bogdum cibbok made at the point of diversion around a riverine island; fish can enter, but cannot escape. See: `hibok ‘fishing dam’. kaabok `bokaa `boko downward; `bogbɨɨ black mithun. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. hobə-`bokaa ‘black mithun’. n. old bull. `boko-boram `bokə n. old and decrepit bull. See: `boko ‘old bull’; boram ‘sick bull’. n. river diversion point; point at which the main body of a river branches off into a smaller arm, as when curving around a riverine island, later to rejoin the main body. Point at which a “`hibok” fishing dam is made. See: `hibok ‘fishing dam’. ace. See: `dɨkin-`bogmin `bogmin `bogyar `bocor ‘confused’. adj. long, of a dam. pos. via (by way of), of (from or belonging to) or in the general direction of something downward, downriver, or southward of the place of speaking. ŋo `bok `iirə. ‘I’ll go down via that route down there.’ *or* ‘I’ll go down via that vehicle which is down there.’ n. base of a fishing dam, made at the point at which a diverted arm of a river (as when snaking around a riverine island) rejoins the main body. Prevents fish from returning to the main body the river, trapping them Var: `bosor (P). adj. of cloth, thin and unlikely to keep the wearer warm. Var: bos`so. int. yikes! Usage: Interjection used to express boc`co `bokko fear, surprise or alarm at some potential hazard or danger. See: boho ‘fear’. `bojar `bojɨɨ n. market. Source: Assamese. n. variety of bamboo, used in construction of walls. Chimonobambusa griffithiana. 230 botor `bolo `kə botor `botə bottle. Source: English. botor torɲi go jilaa ke. ‘Please give me two bottles.’ n. n. bull mithun. ‘mithun cow’. See: `honə See: abor ‘sheet’. -`bor vs:adv. enlarge. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is enlarged as a result of the activity indicated by the verb. vt. blow on something to expand it, as a balloon. vt. exaggerate. bodii n. adolescent male calf. `mibbor bonam vt. 1 • invite; call; solicit 1 assistance, as in “rɨgee” reciprocal labour. rɨgee-bonam ‘to solicit reciprocal labour’. 2 • lead something by force, as a `membor `libbor vt. open a sheathed thing and expand it, such as an umbrella. vt. blow out one’s stomach (purposefully). mithun or a prisoner. `hagbor boram boaa vt. invite someone over to one’s house. vt. strong-arm someone into doing something; invite forcefully. n. last invitee. bokam (-`bojəə) `boɲuu-`bocuu invitee. nce. sick bull. Usage: usu. found in compound. See: `boku-boram ‘old and decrepit male animal’. name. 1 • name of an Eastern Tani group found at the northern extremity of the Tani area, either directly or indirectly bordering the Menba and Khamba, as well as the Bokar, to the north, and also Minyong and Galo to the south, southwest, and southeast. 2 • name of a clan found in some `Borii vt. invite someone as the last bolɨk (-boak) vt. invite reciprocally; give reciprocal `buɲɲə invitations. bolɨk-boak `hiduu naa `yukə. ‘They say they’re giving reciprocal invitations.’ 2 Mising communities. bonam vt. roll a wheel or tire-like vi. roll around an area. thing. `boree `bolo bogoo Bopee `bopo bor- n. variety of brass platter, treated as an heirloom and ritual object. dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location downward, downriver or to the south of the place of speaking. `tol `caalaa `kuju. ‘Let’s go up there.’ dem.pos. from or via (by way of) somewhere downward, downriver, or southward of the place of speaking. ŋo `bolok `iirə. ‘I’ll go down via that route down there.’ or ‘I’ll go down via that name. Bopee, son of Niibo. Third in generation from Abo Tani in one of the Mising lines. n. variety of “`jebo” tunic. clfr. Classifier for spread-out, sheet-like objects, including leaves and pillows. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. anə `borɲi ‘two leaves’. `bolo `kə `bortə ‘broad, of a flattish thing’. 231 bolɨɨ naabɨk vehicle which is down there.’ there guy’. ɲii `bɨɨ da `maajib bolɨɨ nce. red mithun. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. hobə-bolɨɨ ‘red mithun’. `bollo `doruu `duu. ‘That there guy really eats like a glutton.’ `bɨɨ ɲii `bɨəm ŋo `cemmaa. ‘That there guy isn’t known to me.’ dem.pos. there, to, toward, or at a location far away and downward, downriver or to the south of the place of speaking. -bɨɨ boso-`kanoo ‘hunger’. Var: bos-`kanoo. adj. nervous. See: boho ‘fear’; `kanoo Var: `bocco. int. yikes! vs:adv. full; to the brim. Gram: Result suffix usually occurring on verbs of transfer, indicating that an object is filled or made full as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. fill; pour to the brim of a container. `pɨbɨɨ `bɨɨtə `bosso boho Var: bohi; boso; bos. n. fearsome thing; something to be afraid of. boho go `empaa tobaa. ‘I felt something fearsome (was in that room, that’s why I came back).’ vt. fear; be afraid of. `bɨɨ `ikii `əm n:poet. elder Usage: Goŋku. vi. 1 • be brother. bɨɨnam full, of a container. `hɨg `pətup `hɨgɨ `bɨɨduu. ‘This container is full.’ 2 • swell up, as a bug bite; ripple, bos `duu. ‘She’s afraid of the dog.’ bos hoben `jaaduu. ‘She’s too bloody fearful.’ `bɨɨ Var: `mɨɨ (P, L). pro. he; she. Gram: Third person singular pronoun. Usually refers to humans and/or animals, but may also be used to refer to non-living things Var: `bɨm. pro. him; her. Gram: Third person singular pronoun, Accusative case as from the pressure of a body moving behind a continuous surface, as a blanket, or when disturbing or displacing bushes in the jungle due to its movements. nɨŋnam ə bɨɨkaa ku. ‘The punch (i.e. the spot where I was punched) swelled out.’ bɨɨnə-bɨɨbə `bɨəm Var: bɨɨn-bɨɨb. vi. swell out, of a concealing entity, as when an animal moves under a blanket or disturbs bushes in the jungle with its movements. `bɨɨkə Var: `bɨɨk; `bɨk; `mɨɨkə; `mɨɨk; `mɨk. pro. his; her. Gram: Third person singular pronoun, Genitive case bɨɨbaa -bɨk fast; quick; speedy. `bɨɨbab `rɨt `yoo! ‘Do it quickly why can’t you! adj. vs:adv. penetrate; breach. Gram: Result suffix usually found on verbs of transfer, indicating that the transferred entity penetrates or breaches something. `bɨəpə Var: `bɨəp; `mɨəpə; `mɨəp. pro. to him; to her. Gram: Third person singular pronoun, Dative case dem. that (person). Gram: Demonstrative use of the third person pronoun, usually used together with the noun “ɲii” ‘person’. Gives an emphatic sense, as ‘that naabɨk throw something such as a machete into something, causing it to stand/get stuck fast (as into a vt. 232 bɨkɨɨ `bə surface, an animal, or the ground). bɨpɨk n. variety of snake, about a bɨkɨɨ n. variety of cobra, black in n. cobra, in general; the family. See: bɨkɨɨ ‘black vt. score a surface; make colour with a pointed tail. foot long, found in mountainous areas and very poisonous. Can extend body. bɨkɨɨ-bɨrɨɨ `bɨgnam bɨbo cobra cobra’; bɨrɨɨ ‘brown cobra’. wild goat, possibly a variety of serow, although with shorter hair and corkscrewed or ribbed rather than stiletto horns. n. n. river spirit; spirit or demon or draw a line across a surface, e.g. with a pencil or with a knife. `hokkə `hog `lobə horii go `bɨkt `kaa. ‘Draw a line from here up to here.’ `bɨru `bɨro bɨrɨɨ associated with rivers, believed to have great destructive powers. n. river spirit or animal of lore. n. variety of cobra, brownish with a short tail. n. python. `bɨci Var: `bɨsi (P). n. small snake, of n. shallow point of a any variety. bɨj-reerə stream; particularly, an area into which materials have been added for the purpose of rendering the stream shallow, so that fish may be more easily collected as an element of a “`hibok” river diversion fishing dam. bɨrəm bɨlɨɨ bɨhɨɨ `bə 2 n. variety of red snake. n. variety of dry leaf-coloured snake. to some preceding words ending in long vowels). pos. 1 • Adverbial of manner. Gram: Adverb-forming and adverbial clause-subordinating postposition with the basic meaning ‘-ly’ or ‘in (some manner or way)’. Follows adjectives, some types of two-syllable verb, and sentences which are negative (in -maa). Forms a manner adverb or adverbial clause which is capable of modifying a verb. Var: -`b (suffix `bɨtə n. king cobra. Ophiophagus hannah. n. variety of fully green onom. bɨdoo snake. bɨd-`bod `bɨnam `bɨnam murmur; murmuring sound; the sound of a person murmuring. 1 vi. hang; swing, as from a tree branch. 2 vt. rend or cut something across a relatively large surface area into two parts with a sharp tool, such as a knife; cut with claws or teeth, as the bucktoothed attack of a barking deer. `kaaken `bə `mot `yoo. ‘Make it look nice, why can’t you.’ `al `bə `inlaa `na! ‘Go safely!’ al `maab `motuu ku `lakaa. ‘You’ve screwed it up somehow.’ `acco `bəkee! ‘(Do it) quietly!’ 2 • Adverbial of purpose. Gram: Adverbial clause-subordinating postpostition with the basic meaning ‘(in order) to’, ‘for (purpose of)’ or ‘so (that something would happen)’. Follows verbs, and forms a bɨnam vt. piggyback; carry a live person on the back, as a child. 233 `bə `bə subordinate clause describing an event which is not immediately happening, but which is being discussed as a purpose for which something else is done, as in [I went [to see him]]. ŋo `bɨəm `kaat `bə into. ‘I went to see him.’ `ogo `əi `yubd `bə `bulu attɨr ə `parlɨk hikaa. ‘Having no place to go, (thinking) to sleep right there, they all divided themselves into their various functions.’ 3 • Adverbial of extent. Gram: Adverbial clause-subordinating postposition with the basic meaning ‘to (the point that)’ or ‘such (that something happens)’. `bɨɨ ɲɨglaa pcl. Subjunctive postposition. Gram: Sentence-final postposition forming a non-real, imaginative or speculative sentence often with the sense ‘it would be a good thing (for this to be the case)’, ‘would (that this were the case)’ or ‘such (that this were the case)’. məəɲɨɨ məəc `kumaa `bə! ‘Don’t y’all go mindin’ now!’ `ŋuɲɲə `paduu `bə. ‘Let’s be the ones to cut it.’ acin `əm `yəə “maa” əmd `bə! ‘Who could say no to rice?’ `bə 3 ‘He’s `nend `bə `ɲɨrduu. laughing to the point that tears are coming out.’ `kəə, `dɨrd `bə `mokaa to. ‘This thing of mine, okay, try to break it if you can (lit. ‘try to make it such that it breaks’).’ 4 • Adverbial of simultaneity. Gram: Adverbial clause-subordinating postposition with the basic meaning ‘at (the time when)’ or ‘as (something was happening)’. Aci Miilɨɨ `ne `bolok pos. 1 • to. Gram: Dative postposition, marking “indirect objects” such as the recipient of a give verb or another verb suffixed in Benefactive “-ji”. Aci `bə `meɲj kaa. ‘(I) told elder brother.’ 2 • into. Gram: Translative sense of the Dative postposition. Marks a noun ‘into’ which something becomes, usually in a sentence built around the verb “`rɨnam” ‘to do’. `okkə, ŋo gam `bə `rɨt kuda. ‘Then, I became village headman.’ 3 • as (something). Gram: Semblative sense of the Dative postposition. Marks a noun as a standard ‘as’, in terms of’ or ‘in imitation of’ which the verb is true of another entity. Tamik `bə ŋo `induu `eeb kaabee. ‘I saw Elder Brother Miilɨɨ as he was walking somewhere down there’. pos. Adverbial of irreality. Gram: Adverbial clause-subordinating postposition with the basic meaning ‘to (do some hypothetical activity)’ or ‘as though (something were the case)’. Usually occurs together with the the verb `rwnam ‘to do’. məəto. ‘I thought he was Tamik.’ 4 • up to (such and such a quantity). Gram: Extensive sense of `namsuu `ə! `huukaab `rɨmaa. ‘What a stink! Intolerable.’ tahum `kuduub `rɨd `ree? ‘Can you fish for crawdads (up there)?’ (lit. ‘Does it do to fish/as though fishing for crawdads up there?’). the Dative postposition, found on nouns indicating degrees or extents (levels, quantities, amounts, places, times, etc.), giving the sense ‘to/at the level/degree of (x)’. If the extent noun is first marked by individuator “go”, the resulting sense ‘up to/until the level/degree of (x is reached)’, as “`rɨgum `bə `rɨp `laa” ‘do it to the level/extent of three fields’. naahuu `əm `huuɲi `gobə `moto. ‘It made up to around two 234 bə- -`bəə granaries’ worth.’ `yad `bəla? ‘How much (money) was it (lit., it was up to how much)?’ 5 • -ce; times. Gram: Multiplicative sense of the Dative postposition, occurring on ordinal numerals, giving the basic sense ‘NUM-ce’, ‘NUM times’ or ‘NUM iterations’. When occurring on the ordinal numeral ‘one’ “`ləken” or especially a repeated form “`ləken-`ləken”, has the sense ‘sometimes’ or ‘from time to time; every now and again’. `hɨm marking an abstract noun related to the ‘purpose’ or ‘reason’ for which an action takes place, especially “`ləgaa”. bədaa `cennam `ləgaa `bə, `bul ɲijɨɨ go `takaa to. ‘In order to find the way, they asked an old man.’ 8 • with (some quality). Gram: Dative of quality `hibuu `ə hitum `gaan `hɨm ŋo `ləɲi `bə `taduu. ‘I listen to ths song twice (rewinding it after finishing the first time).’ `poolom ŋo `ləken-`ləɲi `bə `caarə. ‘I’ll visit you once or twice per month.’ `ləken-`ləken `bə ŋo `hodum `abduu. ‘From time to time I shoot barking deer.’ 6 • in (the); at; within. Gram: Dative of context, occurring on nouns indicating a a context within which the action indicated by a verb takes place, such as “arum” ‘evening’ and “aloo” ‘day’, with either generic/habitual reference, as ‘I play cards at night,’ or ‘I used to go there in the morning’, or specific reference in past or future time, as ‘I’ll be back in the evening.’ May also include common nouns denoting systems ‘within’ which something is done, as ‘in English (we say it this way)’, or else locations, such as ‘in (the road)’. `bə `bidduu. ‘The river’s flowing with mud.’ `bɨɨ `aɨɨg məənam `bə kəəhi baahi `duu. ‘He just went on casually cooking away over there.’ bə- clfr. Classifier for edges. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: abbə ‘edge’. dem. that (thing) which is 1 located downward, downriver, or to the south of the place of speaking. `mɨɨk dooluu ə `bəə `yukə ‘They say his village is that one down there.’ vs:adv. 1 • continuously; `bəə -bəə continually; still; keep on; remain. Gram: Temporal suffix describing an event which began at an earlier time, and which persists, keeps going, or continues in its duration. nam lo `duubəə `duu. ‘They’re still in the house.’ `iji `gobə `rɨbəə `duu. ‘They’re still doing that up to now.’ 2 • resume; begin again an event ŋo arum `bə aar ku. ‘I’ll come back by night.’ kan `bə `Diihɨɨ pɨɨd `na `əmlaa, `ŋun `yublɨk `laku. ‘Since we reached Diihɨɨ village by dark, we stayed there.’ `ŋəək `Galoo `bə `hɨm `yoo əmrə `kudɨɨ? ‘How do you say this in our own Galo (language)?’ `ŋok inlam `bə `ɨlɨɨ go `dooduu. ‘There’s a stone in my path.’ 7 • for; to. Gram: Dative of purpose, which had been interrupted for some duration of time. okkə `buɲɲə mabəə `duu. ‘And so the two of them resume the search (having let up for some time).’ -`bəə vs:adv. regularly; always; constantly; perennially. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating that the event indicated by the verb always, regularly or constantly happens, as 235 `bəəcum `bəkə though of somebody’s habit. `bɨɨ `inbəə `duu. ‘He always goes.’ `ɨrgaa `bəəduu. ‘It’s perennially interesting (on any given occasion).’ `nok hocər `abnam go `membəə `duu. ‘You’re always talking about your stag-shooting incident.’ bəəjak vt. give birth to a sickly, weak child who is unlikely to survive. `ŋok `hoə `ao `əm `bəəjak kaa. ‘My cow bore a stillborn calf.’ See: jagnam ‘be stillborn’. `bəəlen `bəəcum bəəto n. two-handed handful, as after scooping with two hands into a pile of rice. n. first child. vt. bear a child, in the sense of the baby emerging from the mother; deliver a child. `bəəlɨk bəəduu-`opoo 2 • woman’s n. 1 • the front of a woman, including her breasts and belly area. possessions, beads, ornaments, etc. as vt. bear a child in a particular place, possibly not the expected one. `bɨɨ `an-ab nam lo `ao `əm `bəəlɨk to. ‘She had a child in her parents’ house.’ bəənam-gənam 3 • bearing; condition; day-to-day situation (of a woman or a man). `nok bəəduu-`opoo `ə `yoom `bəla? ‘How are you managing lately?’ n. possessions; belongings; things one carries with and on oneself, as when going travelling. -bək bəənam or carry something; own something; have something in one’s possession at a particular time, particularly in one’s pockets, on one’s person, or otherwise among one’s things. `nun ŋoii `əm `aahen gər `laa `tokkə `bəəloo kaaku, `əi. ‘You dried the fish before you brought them down, right?’ `ləkɨɨ `og bəəmaa to. ‘We didn’t have (these things) in the old times.’ vt. 2 • bear a child; have a baby. 1 • hold vs:adv. clearly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject has a clear or unimpeded experience in terms of the event indicated by the verb. vt. see something clearly; understand something clearly. kaabək `tabək vt. understand something clearly, which one has heard. `tabək kaaku `com? ‘Is it clear now?’ `tabək kaabək `duu. ‘It’s completely clear (both to eyes and ears).’ 1 `ŋom dooluu gollo bəəto. ‘I was born in a village.’ `kohuk `əm ɲim `laanamə, `tapek `əm `ao bəəto. ‘Having taken a dried-up leaf as a wife, the leech was born as their child.’ `bəko n. old skirt. n. old road. n. base of a rising road; foot `bəko 2 `bəkoo `bəkə of a rising road. that sort, of thing located downward, downriver or to the south of the place of speaking. dem. bəətər n. last birth; final child. vi. stop bearing children. 236 `bəkə `bəree `bəkə n. variety of long black skirt; black female dress. -`bək...-`rək vs:advsr. unclear. Gram: Split manner suffix usually occurring on verbs of perception or comprehension indicating that the subject is unclear or wrongly perceiving something. ŋo `yoo for its own use, along which an animal trap may be set. `hodum `bəpaa ‘path made by barking deer’. Syn: `apaa. bəpoo n. road or path running along the breadth of a mountain, maintaining a level altitude. `tabək `tarək kumaa! ‘I can’t understand what’s being said anymore!’ `bəmbə bəgur side road; side path; auxiliary road; detour. n. vi. come apart; come unstuck; come undone; need repairs. `ŋok gaarii ə `bəkkaa ku. ‘My cycle has broken down (some pieces have faults).’ Var: bəsək (P). n. bəgnam pro. like that (thing which is located away from and downward of the speaker/hearer). `nok dooluu ə `bəmbə kai `rəm, `buppɨɨ `yaraa `əm `paaruu rə. ‘If your village down there is so big, certainly you’ll find all manner of things.’ Var: bemmee (P). vt. nag, as a housewife to a husband. bəmmee yok! ‘Stop nagging me!’ n. thread traditionally wrapped around a baby’s waist. bəmmee bəyɨɨ bəcək skirt; sarong. Properly refers to the garment as worn. Prior to actually being worn by a woman to cover her waist, it is referred to as a “`galəə”. n. shelf suspended from the rafters/beams of a house. n. road; path; way. n. crossroad; crossing of Syn: adək.adj. different. `bərak `bərap bəree n. shelf suspended from rafters or roofbeams of a house. n. shelf suspended from the rafters or roofbeams of a house. bəjo bədaa nce. small thing. Usage: compound element very `bədum `bədək 1 two of more paths. `bədək 2 nce. rush or flood of liquid such as water or tears. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. ɲɨglaa `bədək `bə `oduu. ‘Tears are flooding down.’ broadly denoting small things. Generally found in terms denoting insects or other minutiae, such as pebbles. See: `takci-bəree ‘cockroach’; `lɨɨcak-bəree ‘pebble’. `bəree `bənə n. main road; main path, to which offshoot paths connect; trunk road. `bəpaa n. animal corridor; permanent or semi-permanent path or road made by an animal pcl. I suppose (that). Gram: Conjectural particle marking information that the speaker believes to be knowable, but about which the speaker is not confident and is treating as a hypothesis. If used as a question marker, indicates that the speaker believes that the listener knows the answer. `yəə `bəree `menna? ‘Who was it who said that?’ `ŋok `rokcik `ə `yool 237 bərok `bələə `bəree? ‘Where is my knife?’ `ŋom `takaa `duu `bəree məənam əna. ‘I had thought that you were asking me something (that’s why I replied to your question to someone else).’ vt. yank; pull out by force. `bərnə bərok bərək bərtaa adj. clear, of an idea. nce. See: ɲɨgjək-bərək sister-in-law. by women to reciprocally refer to or address the wife of their husband’s brother(s). n:kin. Usage: used n:kin. wife’s sister’s husband. Usage: used by a male to refer to bərbo ‘eyelid deformity’. n. variety of snake, possibly or address the husband of his wife’s sister. a viper. `bəlaa `bələə bərnam vt. turn the head, as though to take a sideward glance at something. `yoogo `laa `ŋom bərkaa `laa `kaaduu `ko? ‘Why are you side-glancing at me like that?’ n. jackfruit. heterophyllus. n. Artocarpus variety of earring consisting of long strings of swinging beads. Worn together with “raaji” earrings. `bərnam be pulled out; be extracted, as a tooth. vi. 238 -m maa M -m pros. Accusative case suffix. Gram: Marks all pronouns and demonstratives used as direct objects, as well as some indirect objects - m Usage: Generally used in an informal, semi-jocular way as between intimate friends or, somewhat less often but still possibly, by a senior towards a junior. `Majum ‘`Kenjum (Diminutive)’. `hɨgɨm `cəə məəbee. ‘I wanted precisely this one.’ -`m pcl. Resolutive particle or suffix. Gram: Occurs at the end of a sentence, usually following Declarative “`na”, Informative “kə” or Mirative “laakaa”. Usually marks information as a clear and straightforward fact, about which the speaker has authority and is in a position to lecture the listener about. Often carries an implication that the addressee should understand it without any difficulty, should have no real basis for questioning it, and may be under admonishment for not already knowing it, or perhaps doubting it. Following an imperative sentence, expresses either impatience with the addressee for not having already done the commanded action, or otherwise indicates that the speaker is unprepared to countenance any disagreement or prevarification on the part of the addressee. `tol `kə `iinaa `nam, -maa vs:asp. not. Gram: Negative predicate suffix, indicating that the action indicated by the verb was not, is not, or will not come about (according to the aspectual marking of the verb). Rarely, derives a term which may be used as a noun. `aɲɨɨ go `eɲə domaa rə. ‘They won’t eat tapioca for a year.’ `ək `ləgaab `cemmaa əku. ‘Because of that we’ve come to not know.’ `ŋok tɨɨmaa ə `əgə `na. ‘That’s why I’m not drinking.’ maa `Borii `ə `cinnam! ‘They’re simply people who came down from up there, the Bori as well!’ donam-tɨɨnam ənam! ‘I’m telling you it’s food!’ `ŋok `an `ne `bottaa `kam! ‘Go invite my mother!’ `hog aat `kem. `tat `kem. ‘Come here. Listen to this.’ `əkkəm `meɲyoo `kem. ‘Don’t say that sort of thing.’ `ij ŋo `yoo `rɨtər `na `bərem? int. no. Gram: Negative interjection which may occur alone as a negative response to a polar question, or as a contradictory rejoinder to a statement made by someone else. When occurring at the beginning of a sentence, does not have a strongly negative flavour, but rather simply draws attention to the speaker’s desire to take a turn and make a (possibly contradictory) statement. maa, kaamaa. ‘No, I don’t have one.’ maa maa `əmdak `kom...‘Although some may deny it...’ pcl. or; or else; or if not. Gram: Disjunct coordinator marking alternation betewen two interrogative clauses or nouns, basically: ‘x? Or, if not, y?’ or ‘Is it x? Or, if not, y?’ `hɨg al `yaad `naa ma- pfx. Masculine diminutive prefix to the name root of a male human individual. `bəree maa `əgə al `yaad `naa `bəree? ‘Is this one better or is 239 `maaco `maktə that one better?’ maanam 1 v. lack; not have (rare, `maaco pcl. isn’t it. Gram: Particle with the basic sense ‘isn’t it (the case)’, with the added implication that the speaker is not overly boldly asserting the facthood of his information, as though there were still room for the addressee to disagree. `ijjaa, `rɨrəp `ə `maaco, archaic). `paanaa `paakaa, `paamaa `na maakaa. ‘The haves have, the have-nots have not.’ maanam plant. 2 vi. creep, of a creeping `maanam `əi? ‘Now, we can suppose it’s the starting point, eh?’ v:c.arg. dream. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`yumaa” ‘dream’ `yumaa maaji very much. `bɨɨ 1 adj. very; ɲimm `əm maaji `bə `pagduu. ‘He loves his wife very much.’ pəmɨr ə maaj ə! ‘So much dust!’ hottum-horr ə maaji `laa, agum `nenlaa `maab `rɨyar bee. ‘It always happened that there were so many wild animals, we couldn’t even go outside.’ adv. very; very much. `maaduu `ben. ‘(It seems like) she’s dreaming.’ maapuu `maabə Var: `gooree (P). n. variety of white sweet potato/yam. pcl. isn’t it; obviously; of course; for heaven’s sake. Gram: Maaji name of the third 2 name. entity in the universe, generated by “`Poomaa”, and progenitor of “`Jimii”. adj. extreme; Abrupt-sounding noun phrase clefting or copula clause-final particle or adverb. Generally indicates that the information contained in the marked clause is perfectly obvious, with an implication that the listener has no excuse for not understanding it and indeed should have known it already. maa`jii much. very, very `maadɨɨ n. variety of defensive 1 trap in which a small tree set with sharpened stakes is bent back away from a path under great tension, with a rope-release trigger set across the path. When the trigger is disturbed, the tree whips across the path, striking the walker with great force, causing injury or death. 2 `ŋok ɲimm ə `maabə! ‘Of course (she’s) my wife!’ `ŋunuk `duuko `jaa `ə `təə Baahar `təə `maabə. ‘Our real place is Basar up there, isn’t it.’ maamo n. tendril on a cane. See: maamo-`ɨdɨr ‘variety of trap’. maamo-`ɨdɨr n. variety of basket used in a “tapii-tao-minnam” fish trapping system. See: `ɨdɨr ‘trap variety’. n. red-skinned variety of sweet potato/yam. maalɨɨ `maadɨɨ pcl. isn’t it; is it not the case (that). “mookaa” `hɨgɨ `ŋəək `Galoo agom ə `maadɨɨ? ‘I suppose this “mookaa” is our own Galo word, is it?’ Tanii `anə `duuna `maadɨɨ. ‘Is it not the case that Tani’s mother was still alive.’ `makkup `makcuu `maktə n. cup-like shield for a penis, a variety of traditional clothing. Var: `maccuu. n. penis. n:kin. Var: ɲobo (P). 240 magii `maɲɨɨ 1 • elder brother-in-law. Usage: used by juniors to refer to or address the husband of one’s elder female siblings by blood or kin. 2 • respected brother-in-law. Usage: used to respectfully refer to or address a male of significance who has married one of one’s female kinsfolk. magii Var: ɲobo (P). n:kin. sister’s brother-in-law. Usage: used to refer to, though generally not to address, the husband (or his brother) of an inferior female relation such as one’s granddaughter, daughter, or younger sister, when he is relatively elder to other such relations (i.e., older than other “magbo”). See: magbo ‘son/brother-in-law’; kai ‘big’. husband’s younger brother. Usage: used to refer to or address the younger brother of the husband of one’s sister by blood or kin. `magmə Var: `magmo. n. male pubic hair. `magyum the tip). n. penis buncher (tied at magoo magbo n. tobacco. Usage: (P). n. penis lesion. `maglaa `maŋaa n. Syn: yolaa. semen; sperm. fool. but magbak n:kin. son-in-law; brother-in-law (via younger sister). Usage: used by elders to refer to or address the husband of one’s inferior female relations, including daughter, granddaughter, or younger sister, as well as any of his brothers. ace. See: `maŋaa-`maraa ‘clever foolish man’. `maŋaa-`maraa Var: yapam-yamam (P). adj. clever but useless, of a man or woman. See: `maŋaa ‘fool’. `maci magbo-ayaa n:kin. Var: magbo-omee (P). younger son-in-law; younger brother-in-law. Usage: used to refer to, though generally not to address, the husband (or his brother) of an inferior female relation, such as one’s granddaughter, daughter, or younger sister, when he is inferior to other such relations (i.e., younger than other “magbo”). See: magbo ‘son/brother-in-law’; ayaa ‘small’. Var: magbo-`abɨɨ (P). n:kin. n. variety of basket, medium-sized, used for measuring, transferring and storing large quantities of rice. Syn: `oci. n. penis. See: `makcuu. `maccuu `majjaa adj. real; really; very much the case; very much so. ɲidoo onam ə `majjaa `bə `yumii `moduu. ‘The falling of the rain really makes me sleepy.’ `tapek `ə `majjaab rəd `lakaa. ‘There are huge numbers of leeches there.’ n. iron nettle used for piercing woven “`igin” and “əbar” in order to insert bamboo elements to secure the “`giŋgɨɨ” frame elements. `maɲɨɨ magbo-kai elder son-in-law; elder 241 manam -min manam vt. search for something. `mandəruu `manruu n:poet. Usage: Goŋku. Var: `manruu. Var: `mansuruu (P). fox. n. gives a tingly sensation to the tongue, not unlike Sichuan pepper. Spilanthes paniculata. `malo fox. Var: `mandəruu. n. type of ceremonial vessel, bowl-shaped, apparently of brass or copper alloy. ace. See: aŋu-mahəə ‘dirty’. `mansuruu -map n. fox. See: `manruu ‘fox’. Usage: (P). mahəə ma! vs:adv. down. Gram: Result suffix to a transitive verb indicating that the object is transferred downward as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as in the sense of ‘fall down’. vt. chop down, as a tree. ŋo `hɨɨn `əm təəmap kaa. ‘I chopped the tree down.’ n. tobacco leaf. təəmap `mabor mami no way. negative interjection expressing strong disagreement with a proposal or presupposition. ma! `əmbə `rɨmaa rə. ‘No way! It won’t be like that.’ v:c.arg. sing a lullaby. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “nimii” ‘lullabye’ int. nope; uh-uh; Usage: Abrupt miinam n:mese. mommy, motherese (baby-talk). in `nimii-`miinam lullaby’. ‘to sing a `miirii `mamor n. rust. `mamor `doduu ku. ‘It’s become rusted.’ mamnam cover something, 1 vt. such as a pot, with a lid or other flat or lid-like object, such as leaves. mamnam 2 vt. feel with hands; feel around, as when groping in the dark; touch the face after being punched. Var: `mɨɨyɨɨ (P). n. tip of a pole-shaped, thin and tall, or oblong object, prototypically a tree or other plant, but also a feather; the relatively higher portion of a plant stem, closer to the top; also, treetop, i.e. the top portion of a tree. See: `nərɨɨ ‘lower part of a plant stem; base’. name. name of the fifth entity in the universe, generated by “`Jimii”, and progenitor of “`Hintuu”. n. ash, as from a fire or cigarette; small and potentially airborne. Syn: taco. n. buffalo. n. `Miihin `mayum `martum marnam marsaa n. loose tobacco; rolling Var: `martun (P). n. tobacco. hammer. vt. be angry; be angry at `micco `miɲjik midduu someone. ŋo `mardak `na. ‘I feel angry.’ n. variety of edible plant. Abundant and weedlike, with very small yellow flowers with tiny petals. Used as a vegetable; bellows tube; tube usually made from bamboo, used for concentrating breath to blow on a fire and increase its strength. to/on Var: -mii. vs:val. join; amongst; one another. Gram: -min 242 -`min `mippum Applicative suffix to a transitive verb, obligatorily followed by either “-gə” or “-hi”, indicating of a plural subject in “-hi” that the action indicated by the verb is directed amongst one another, or of a subject in “-gə” that it joins the object in the action indicated by the verb as a follower or co-participant. `bul `modɨr mins `mimpak `minloo drive away an animal, e.g. hoo `əm `mimpak tok! ‘Drive (the cow) away!’ vt. vt. chase or drive something down, as down from a house. `duu. ‘They are fighting to the bitter end.’ `tol `ɨtɨɨ `ə ɨrmin `hilaa `cin `rɨduu. ‘We also spread rice powder on one another up there.’ mamii hinam ‘searching for one another’. ŋo `bɨəm hobb `əm mamiŋ `gəduu. ‘I’m joining him in searching for the mithun.’ domin gənam ‘eating together’. `hagɨɨ `rəm `hagɨɨ miŋgə `laa. ‘When he sighs, it repeats his sigh. (lit. ‘it joins him in sighing’).’ `minnam (1) Var: `mennam (1) (P). v:c.arg. name (for the first time); create. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “`amin” ‘name’ Silɨɨ amin `əm `minlen `dagna. ‘We named (this place) Sili.’ `miŋkii vi. correctly-named; appropriately-named. `miŋmur vi. incorrectly-named; inappropriately-named. minnam (2) -`min vs:adv. pulverize. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an object is reduced to smaller parts as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. chew into bits; make vi. blow, as wind. doogum-door `midduu ku. ‘It’s starting to storm out.’ blow on someone or something. ŋo `əmm `əm mikkaa. ‘I blew on the fire.’ vt. `domin mikkak vt. blow an area clean. into small bits by chewing. mikkup-millek `migɨr minnam (1) `minaa miŋgə vt. chase, particularly an animal; run after something. vi. blow all over the place; blow all around, in every direction. chase something away from a premises. vt. vt. make a fire red-hot by blowing on it. vt. blow out; extinguish vt. stoke a fire; increase vt. clear an blowing away chase someone or something; drive something away (as an animal). hoo `əm mingə `tok! ‘Drive the cow away!’ vt. vt. miŋŋik `middor a fire by blowing on it. a fire by blowing on it. `miɲci catch someone or something which is being chased. chase something to the best of one’s ability, as much as can be done. vt. mippuu-millin area by particles. mintər-miŋgaa mibbuu `mippum vt. blow through a hole, as a bellows tube or a musical instrument (such as a flute). n. main surface area of a Galo fireplace, usually of packed 243 `mibbo `mum sand/earth, but also sometimes of concrete. `muur `yookee. ‘Don’t be so cunning/secretive.’ `mibbo n. flake, as from peeling mukaa n. element of a “rɨɨlen” fish skin or an ashlet from a burning log. mimi-`kurii `miram Mirii n. cat. See: `kurii ‘cat’. n. hearth; fireplace. Usage: (P). See: `imik ‘hearth’. name. traditional name of the Mising Tribe of Upper Assam, now considered pejorative by most Mising. Not considered pejorative by Hills Miri, who are generally considered to be tribally distinct from the plains Mising. name. name of the Mising trapping system, an upstream platform from which fish poison is prepared and released into a river, to stun fish which are then collected from a river diversion point further downstream. `mukpuu `muglɨɨ to n. dense fog. n. lightning that makes it earth; killer lightning. See: `doorak ‘lightning with thunder’. n. `muŋku `mudorii munaa spinster; unmarried woman. Var: budrii (P). n. guava. Source: Assamese. Var: payək (P). n. bag. `Misɨɨ muugo tribe of Upper Assam, North East India. n. compulsion; feeling of strong attraction to something one doesn’t expect to see. `munam muugo-`aluk nostalgia; nostalgic or wistful feeling. muug-`aluk `tapaa. ‘Hearing this, I am reminded of better days.’ See: muugo ‘compulsion’; `aluk ‘depression’. n. vt. suck from inside the vi. be crazy; be mad; be insane. no `mud `laree? ‘Are you mad?!’ Var: `mus-`mulee. vi. loony; half-mad; verging on insanity. `musi-`mulee `munam-rumnam See: `munam n. ‘crazy’; insanity. rumnam `muunam ‘shout’. mouth; vacuum; suck on something solid, such as a pen. Usage: Not used to describe the action of sucking through a straw. -mum vs:adv. just; simply; casually; carelessly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is done without too much care or concern, or is brought about ineffectively, amateurishly, unsystematically, without relish, or has a result of poor effect. `rɨmum `muupuk vt. kiss. `muupuk-dotak `muur vi. kiss and cluck the mouth, as when fawning over a baby. vt. endanger or deceive someone; be intentionally deceptive or cunning. `əmbə `jaa `duu. ‘It’s passable; it works (though only just).’ `ɲipak oo `gadd `əm `domum `yookem. ‘Don’t just go eating non-tribal food without a thought.’ `mum pcl. just; only; simply; 244 -`mur `mennam casually. `əgə `mum `rem? ‘Is that it?’ oo kəənam `mum `əm ŋo `kəəlak tol `pə. ‘Cooking vegetables is nothing big to me (I can cook easily).’ -`mee vs:adv. separate. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the participants in an event are separated as a result of someone’s actions. `ajen `əm -`mur vs:adv. mistakenly; erroneously; incorrectly. Gram: Verb suffix indicating that the subject acts mistakenly or erroneously in bringing about the action indicated by the verb, or that the action results in a mistake or an error. `numee hit `kee. ‘Break up your friends’ fighting.’ mee n. multiplicity. taruu ə meego `rəduu. ‘There are so many mosquitoes.’ n. yeoman. See: yaamee-meetor ‘yeoman’. vt. mate; mate with; have sexual intercourse, particularly of relatively small animals. `rokpo `meeduu. ‘The cock is mating with (the hen).’ meetor `immur `tamur vi. take the wrong way accidentally. vt. `meenam mishear; misunderstand something that one hears. vt. misspeak; speak `memmur `rɨmur muraa meenam wrongly; speak out of turn. vt. make a mistake. vt. take the wrong one. See: `joŋkii-muraa `laamur nce. vi. be many; have many. ɲii ə meemaa boolo, `mɨɨloo `əm `kabŋam maahae. ‘If there aren’t many people, we won’t be able to shingle the roof.’ nce. See: `rukcɨɨ-meelɨɨ ‘ant meelɨɨ ‘seat’. variety’. `murkoo n. 1 • silver. `Mekkə -`men name. blackie (nickname). 2 • money. `Murkoo Hələk name. traditional name of Pasigat, still retained in a subpart of the Pasigat area. See: `murkoo ‘silver/money’. vs:adv. as play; in play. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb in or as play. vi. stroll; go for a walk. `immen `laju. ‘Let’s go for a stroll.’ vt. watch `immen `murkoo-goodaa ritual ladder-like object made from a bamboo stick flanked on both sides with turned-in bamboo rings. Used as an element of sacrificial altars. See: `murkoo ‘silver/money’; goodaa ‘ritual ladder object’. n. nce. betelnut husk. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: tamul-mulkuk ‘betelnut `kaamen `domen `mennam something for fun, as a movie. vt. snack; eat for fun or to pass time. Var: `mannam (NW). vi. speak; talk. `meɲyoo `kee! ‘Shut up; don’t say that!’ vie. say (that). Gram: Extended intransitive sense of ‘speak’ in which a direct speech report must *follow* mulkuk husk’. 245 `menəə mennam (2) the verb, as ‘John said, “x”.’ Aɲi Mumsi `menduu, “ŋo Dooɲ `Pool `mook `hokkə; `nok `bol `yoomb aad `bə?” ‘Elder Sister Mumsi said, “I’m from this land of the Sun and Moon; how could I go with you to your place?”‘. vt. 1 • say something; talk about something. Gram: Transitive sense of ‘say’ taking a common nominal or pronominal object referring to the contents of speech. *Cannot* take an indirect or direct speech report or any other clausal complement of any kind. `əgəm `ment ba `lakaa. ‘I `meɲcɨɨ `meɲji vt. advise someone. vt. explain something to someone. vt. settle a dispute; reach agreement. vt. flatter someone, as in order to gain something. vi. exaggerate; speak in `meɲjup `menjoo `meɲjok an exaggerated manner. vt. praise someone. `mentom `mennek `menrɨk already talked about that, don’t you remember?’ məənam `əm `mennam `menduu. ‘He just goes ahead and says whatever he’s thinking (without reflecting on whether it should be said or not).’ 2 • speak to someone. `bulləm teach; show someone by telling them how. vt. vt. tease; taunt. vt. answer; respond. mennam (1) `yoocin `memmaa. ‘This bear, what did he do? He didn’t say a thing to them.’ 3 • speak a language; speak in a particular language. no `Galoo agom `əm `menlak `dooree? ‘Can you speak Galo?’ 4 • chant to spirits; of a shaman, vt. 1 • exert pressure on or upon something; weigh on something or someone. `yaraa `hɨgɨ `maajib `ai `duu. `ŋom `maajib `menduu ku. ‘This thing is really heavy. It’s really weighing on me.’ iikuu `əm `ɨlɨɨ `pɨt `na `lok `menten `tokaa. ‘Weigh down the bamboo dice with a big stone.’ 2 • put to sleep; kill, of a small invoke spirits through chanting. animal, or a human, in a priestly, high register, possibly euphemistic sense. `menəə vt. speak ironically; say the opposite of what is true, as in order to taunt or annoy someone. vt. `meŋkə vt. kill with weight; kill by weighing heavy things upon a body. `meŋkek `meŋgaa `meŋgap speak `meɲjap indiscriminately. vt. blame someone for vt. flatten something with weight. mennam (2) something. vt. speak such that the message sticks in the listener’s mind. vt. mate, of an animal; be in mating season, or exhibiting behaviour which is characteristic of excess hormone influence as in mating season. `ikii `ə meggok `duuku. ‘The dog is running around crazily, as 246 `menpin `mootum under the influence of excess hormones.’ ərək ə memmin `hiduu. ‘The pigs are mating.’ `moi n. field levelling; levelling or flattening of a wet field. Source: `menpin skin. Var: `ɲopin (P). n. tiger Assamese. `moi-nərnam ‘to level a field’. moii name. name of a river Mebbuu -`mo 1 n:kin. 1 • younger maternal aunt. Usage: used to refer to or around Aaloo. vs:adv. uncontrollably; address the younger sister of one’s mother. 2 • younger aunt-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address unconsciously. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts without consciousness or control in the action indicated by the verb. `bɨɨ the younger sister of one’s wife’s father or mother. 3 • maternal aunt’s daughter. Usage: used to refer to or address `ayyom `immo `duu. ‘He goes around uncontrollably at night (i.e. sleepwalks).’ -`mo 2 vs:val. 1 • make (someone do something); let (someone do something); have (someone do something); cause (someone to do something). Gram: Causative any daughter of one’s mother’s sister. moo pcl. not. Gram: Copula negator takkə moo! ‘They’re not squirrels!’ n. wok; deep-dish frying pan. Syn: `joŋkaa. n. place. suffix indicating that the subject makes, causes, lets, or allows the object to perform the action indicated by the verb. `tɨɨcoo `mot `kee. ‘Let mookaa mooko them drink first (before you serve the food).’ no `mɨəm `ɨhɨɨ `hɨgɨm `pam `tokee. ‘Have him cut this wood (for someone else).’ `opin `motok! ‘Let (the rain) stop (before you go out)!’ 2 • Switch-subject suffix. Sense of mooko-`isi `mookop n. terrain; conditions; climate of a particular place. See: mooko ‘place’; `isi ‘water’. adj. sunken cheeks, as a tuberculosis victim. See: `mookop-`moorop ‘sunken cheeks’. Var: `mookop-`mooyop (P). adj:expr. sunken cheeks. the Causative suffix in which no real causative meaning is found, but which is used in clause chains (verbs connected in “-`laa”) to show that the actor of the marked verb is the object, and the same as the subject of the following verb. `bulləm `yubm `tolaa gərəp to. ‘After they slept (someone other than them) got up.’ `nom ŋo `ijjaa `gogm `lapə məənam ee. ‘I was just thinking of having you called (for a meeting, but here you are).’ `mookop-`moorop `mooci crab. Var: `moosi (P). n. jungle nce. `moocoo `mooji Var: `moosoo (P). See: `moodɨr-`moocoo ‘no man’s land’. n. festival. n. 1 • jungle; forest. `mootum 2 • wild animal. 247 `mootum-ɲigam mooyum See: horə-`mootum ‘wild animal; hunting’. `moodɨr 3 n. no man’s land; steep or `mootum-ɲigam jungle hunter; expert hunter of wild animals in the jungle. See: `mootum ‘jungle’; ɲigam ‘hunter’. n. n. mountain. n. summit of a See: `moodii n. otherwise inhospitable terrain, where spirits are supposed to live. `moodɨr-`moocoo Var: `moodɨr-`moosoo (P). n. no man’s land; steep or otherwise inhospitable terrain, where spirits are supposed to live. See: `moodɨr ‘no man’s land’. `moodii `moodii-puutuu `moodii-`peŋkoo mountain. ‘mountain’; puutuu ‘tip’. moodə-moobə n. earthquake. Var: mood-moobə. mountain valley; valley between two mountains. See: `moodii ‘mountain’; `peŋkoo ‘valley’. variety or varieties of nightingale (bulbul), including but possibly not limited to the yellow blackcrested bulbul. See: `moodii ‘mountain’; bekko ‘bulbul’. n. moopin `moobaa `moobii n. harvest festival; most n. plateau. important traditional festival. `moodii-bekko n. area on a mountain which has been cultivated, but which is currently being left to fallow. `moomaa `moodii-rɨkə n. jhum field; mountain field or hillside on which jhum or “slash-and-burn” agriculture is performed. Mountain fields are traditionally the primary field types cultivated by Galo, which are intensively cultivated for one or two years, then left to a five-year fallowing period. See: `moodii ‘mountain’; rɨkə ‘field’. 1 adj. busy. `kəb gollo `moomaa `duuku `naaree? ‘Have you gotten busy (working) on something else?’ n. 1 • elephant’s trunk. moomii 2 • octopus tentacle. Usage: new formation; not a traditional designation, but accepted by most speakers. `moomen `moodɨr adj. rugged or uneven, of terrain or topography. `ŋunuk `hɨgɨ `mooko `moodɨr `duu. ‘The topography of our area is rugged.’ n. clearing; open area, free of obstructions to vision, in which one can see from one end to the other without difficulty. adj. unobstructed; clear obstructions to vision. of moomoo mooyaa adj. tingly sensation or `moodɨr 2 adj. deformed, of a face. `mɨɨ əttam `lokkə `oloo dooku `na `əmlaa `ɲuŋmoo `moodɨr `duuku. ‘He has become facially deformed due to falling from a precipice.’ flavour on the tongue, as from eating “marsaa”. shady side mountain. Syn: mooyum. n. n. of of a a mooyum shady side 248 mooraa -`mopaala mountain. Syn: mooyaa. mooraa n. 1 • hell; no man’s land. 2 • any old place; no particular destination. Usage: Generally occurs with associated noun “`ui” ‘spirit’. `uii-`monam ‘to invoke, petition, or curse spirits’. 4 • harm someone or something; `mooree pcl. certainly; obviously. ŋo `al `gə `caaduu `kunna `mooree. ‘Certainly I’ve come by foot.’ `mooro mooroo moorɨɨ n. cheek, on the face. n. field fallowing for a period of more than 20 years. Var: mooyɨɨ (P). n. plateau; plains within a mountain range which will not extend endlessly. See: deerɨɨ ‘endless plains’. n. virgin mountain; wild mountain; slope which has never been cut for cultivation. tamper or fiddle with something; mess around with, improperly use, wreck or risk wrecking something, as a child who plays with and risks breaking an expensive gadget or a substance or tool which doesn’t work properly and wrecks what it was intended to help. no `yoo `əm bəət `laa `ŋunnəm `morə? ‘What will you attack us using?’ a penalty. occurs with associated noun “guuɲɨɨ” ‘debt’. `əmlaa, guuɲɨɨ `molaa, porok rogjɨr `əm `laalee `laa, iŋkaa ku. ‘So he claimed a penalty, and taking a young hen he in the end went on his way.’ 6 • cause something to happen. Gram: Must occur with following Result suffix. `əmm `əm `mor `laa. 5 • claim, as Usage: Generally moorə `moohen `mokak clean. n. desert; dry, waterless area where few crops can grow. vt. clean; make something mokoo `motə n. shaft of an iron-tipped arrow. omo-mokoo ‘shaft of an iron-headed arrow’. n:kin. 1 • elder maternal aunt. Usage: used to refer to or address 2 • elder aunt-in-law. Usage: used the elder sister of one’s mother. to refer to or address the elder sister of one’s wife’s father or mother. ‘You caused a fire.’ ŋo `nom `molom rə. ‘I’ll land you in a shocked state through my actions.’ domaa nam `gob `mopak rə. ‘I’m going to get rid of it so they can’t eat anything,’. `moək vt. dislocate something, `monam as a bone from its joint; make something function improperly. vt. 1 • make; produce; build; prepare. namə-`monam ‘house construction’. `mohi `laju. ‘Let’s make one for ourselves.’ 2 • do; be occupied in doing. no `mogəə `modɨɨ -`mopaala vt. touch someone or vt. hurt. something. `yoo `moduu `naala? ‘What do you think you’re doing?’ 3 • invoke, as ghosts or spirits. vs:nf. during; while; at the same time. `ŋom od `gol `duum `paala, hos go `aala. ‘While I was there laying a stone 249 moyaa mɨr slab trap, a porcupine came.’ moyaa moroo n. variety of prepared poison. n:kin. 1 • second maternal aunt. Usage: used to refer to or address the second sister of one’s mother. Rare and possibly archaic in usage. 2 • second aunt-in-law. Usage: used to refer to or address 2 • minutely. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is carried-out minutely, finely, or with great attention to detail. `omɨk vi. fall and become pieces or smash into bits, as of a smashing light bulb. vt. grind something vt. `kemmɨk into bits. the second sister of one’s wife’s father or mother. Rare and possibly archaic. `cemmɨk -mɨk know something comprehensively; know every last minute detail. molap molek nce. nce. See: məəmo-molap See: tado-molek ‘inkling’. ‘variety of insect’. mɨɨnam 1 vi. multiply; increase, as a population; progenerate, as a lineage; spread, as grass or other ground cover. `nəmɨɨ `ə `mɨɨduu. ‘The grass is spreading.’ vs:adv. close; near. Gram: Manner or directional suffix indicating that the subject is close or too close to the object in bringing about the action indicated by the verb vi. speak too closely to someone, so that one can smell the odour on their breath. vt. pour something, as liquor, directly into someone’s mouth. vt. jabmɨk-jabrɨk mɨɨnam 2 vt. char, particularly of `pɨmɨk charring rice husks to prepare for mixing them into rice and fermenting, when making rice beer. `ampə mɨɨnam ‘charring rice husks for use in rice beer’. `rɨmɨk-`memmɨk for; feed; serve. provide mɨɨbuu `mɨɨloo mɨɨsɨr -`mɨk n. rafter beam running the mɨkom `mɨkə n. hawk. length of the crest of the roof of a house; apex of the house roof. n. roof; ceiling. n. smoke. adj. smoky. `mɨk rə. ‘It will be smoky.’ n. roofing beam. Usage: (P). -`mɨk...-`mak See: `robə ‘roofing beam’. vs:adv. 1 • become pulverized. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something becomes pulverized or made into powder as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `bul vs:advsr. into a million pieces. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that the object is smashed or otherwise dispersed into minute particles as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `rəmap `doob `momɨk rəku. ‘They’ll pulverize it by hand until it’s soft and powdery.’ `tagmɨk `tagmak kaaku. ‘(The bottle) smashed into a million pieces.’ See: -`mɨk ‘pulverize’. mɨr vt. clean a grave. Usage: usu. 250 `mɨrkə məəgap occurs with dedicated noun “deemɨr”. See: deemɨr-mɨrnam ‘clean a grave’. married-off female member of one’s clan. 2 • paternal aunt’s daughter. Usage: used to refer to or address `mɨrkə adj. v:c.arg. black-coloured; blackened. `mɨrnam acclimatize oneself; attune the body; adapt bodily conditions. Gram: Generally the daughter of one’s father’s sister. `məor məə- occurs with associated noun “`amɨr” `amɨr-`mɨrlɨk ‘body condition’ n. torch. `məor go `bəəl int `kee. ‘Carry a torch when you go.’ hinam ‘to acclimatizing oneself (to local conditions)’. `mɨrpuu mɨrbo adj. white-coloured. n. variety of large, light green grasshopper. n. dustpile. mɨrlum pfx. Feminine diminutive avuncular prefix to the name root of a female human individual, for use by her maternal uncle. Məətər ‘nickname of a woman named Kentər, for use by her maternal uncle’. n. pəmɨr mɨrlum `na bədaa ‘a dusty road’. adj. dusty. `məəkuu spp. cucumber. Cucumis mɨrlɨɨ -mə adj. red-coloured. məənam kaamaa leemə, `hodum apin `əm `baal dokaa ku. ‘Having nothing to eat with their rice, they roasted and ate the barking deer skins.’ vs:nzr. accompaniment. Gram: Nominalizing suffix deriving a noun describing an accompaniment to the action indicated by the verb. `laat vs:adv. accompanying. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the object of a transitive verb has the status of an accompaniment with which the action indicated by the verb is carried out. acin dom naan vt. 1 • think about something, as a person or an idea. əmbəi məəduuna na. ‘I’m just thinking (about nothing in particular).’ 2 • think that. ma, ŋom taka duubəre məənəmə na. ‘Nothing; I had thought you were asking me (that’s why I replied to your question to someone else).’ mɨəm no mokə tarə ben məəbee. ‘I thought that you were going to kill him (he was down, and you could have killed him, but for some reason didn’t).’ 3 • like or love someone. `kee! `əgə dom go `lakaa! ‘What! Take it! It’s edible, for heaven’s sake!’ ŋo `mɨəm `məəduu. ‘I like him.’ 4 • want something. `məi n. smoky colour, especially of complexion. məəgaa `məo n:kin. 1 • sister’s daughter. Usage: used to refer to or address the daughter of one’s (married) sister, as well as that of any other vt. yearn after something; pine for məəgaa nam something. `daadii `əm `paato. ‘I got just what I wanted.’ vt. concentrate, as on məəgap 251 məəcək `məkəm work; memorize something, as a procedure or list. `məgum `məci n. flame; tongue of fire. məəcək məəcem məənam Var: mɨɨsək (P). vt. Var: `məsi (P). n. flint. approximate, as the distance between two locales. vt. like something or `məci-`məree Var: `məsi-`məree (P). n. spark. See: `məci ‘flint’; `məree ‘ember’. someone, especially potential mate. as a `məco `məcɨɨ n. wood ash; ash from wood. n. relatively small piece or n. 1 • thought; idea. 2 • a lot; however much one might be able to imagine. aci, ŋo `murkoo `əm məənam go `paatuu! ‘Elder Brother, I’ve gotten tons of money!’ `bɨɨ məənam go jabji rə `pə. `bɨɨ `maaj `cenduu. ‘He may tell you a lot. He knows a lot.’ wood, especially match-sized but also up to finger-sized, with an ember at the tip; especially, one which can be removed from the fire and used to ignite something else, such as a cigarette. `məcɨɨ-`məlɨɨ `məɲɨɨ n. barest embers; barely burning fire; the beginnings of a fire. n:time. last year. n:time. `məəpaa vt. remember. `ŋok amin `əm no `məəpaa `dooree? ‘Do you remember my name?’ vt. forget a fact. are! ŋo `məəpaa kudda maa! ‘Are! I’ve forgotten (the words) again!’ n. outlook; bias; way of vt. be satisfied; feel that `məɲɨɨ-`keɲɲɨɨ `məəpaa maa. a few years ago; some years back. `məɲɨɨ-`keɲɲɨɨ ŋo Aaloo `tolo rəbbee. ‘A few years ago, I lived here in Along.’ n. burnt firewood; burnt or burning log; firewood which is presently burning or which has been burnt. See: `əor ‘burnt bamboo’. n. container made from wet leaves, used to transport coals (embers). n:poet. sky. Usage: Goŋku. n. light, as from a fire. məəpee məəpɨɨ `mətuu thinking. something is enough. `murkoo `əm ŋo məəpɨɨ maa. ‘I’m not satisfied with the (amount of) money (that I have).’ `məduu mədo məəbə məəmo n. melon. nce. See: baŋin ‘ripe See: məəmo-molap melon’. ‘inkling’. `mədor məəmo-molap thought. n. inkling; barest `mədor `bə `dort `kee! ‘Shine like a bright light (don’t just sit there lying around)!’ mənam məkii vt. lie; tell a lie. vi. expert in lying; good at vi. lie persistently; go `məgu Var: `məgo (P). n. blaze; major fire; inferno. dooluu `əm `məg `gulaa ku. ‘The village was burned up in an inferno.’ lying. `məkəm 252 `məbuk `məlo on lying even after one has been found out. `məbuk `məbo Var: `abbuk (P). n. gun. n. large-sized log to be used as firewood. relatively small, glowing piece of wood which has detached from a larger piece of wood and is burning independently. Var: `meree. -`məm `məro `həmbə kaaduu boolo, taləə `tok pətaa ə `oməm `looto. ‘When he looked up like this, birds would just fall out of the sky.’ `ɲiik nam lo `inməm `yookaa. ‘Don’t go so casually to people’s houses.’ vs:adv. casually; effortlessly; just; simply. Gram: Manner verb suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is brought about casually, easily, without any effort, or without any serious concern for consequences. Ab Tanii Var: `mərə (P). n. torch, bundle of burning firewood, as used to ignite a larger fire or burn off the debris of a jhum field. Var: `məlo (P). n:time. `məroo yesterday. `məroo-`kenloo Var: `məlo-`kenloo (P). adv. way back when; before (not currently); some time back/ago; in those days; in the old days. `məroo-`kenloo, ŋo `poot bee. ‘Way back when, I was pretty fat.’ See: `məroo ‘yesterday’; `kenloo ‘day before yesterday’. `məmnam vt. cook something, such as leaf vegetables, by steaming directly over cooking rice. n:time. last night. n:time. `məyo `mər `məro-`kenluu Var: `mər-`kenluu. Var: `məro. Var: bəraa; yesterday morning. `mər-`kenluu kuɲɲoo `bɨɨk hinam ə. ‘His death was way back when.’ n:time. long ago. məraa mayaa (P). int. whatever; umm...; like...; mane...Usage: Hesitation word, used when pausing to think of a word. Can also be used to stand in place of a word which the speaker cannot think of. məraa na! `bɨɨ məraa go məraa tobaa `lakaa. ‘Hey! He just did something to whatever.’ facial blemish; blackhead; freckle or mole. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `uii-`məram ‘facial blemish’. nce. Var: `məyum (P). n. n:time. `mərom mərnam n. field debris of a jhum field after it has been burnt-off to clear for cultivation. vt. rub with hands lightly; pet; stroke (e.g. a cat); spread something across a surface. ŋo `kurii `əm `mərduu. ‘I’m stroking/petting the cat.’ mərkaa vt. stroke something or `məram someone just to see what will happen, as a potential girlfriend. mərkak `mərrup `məlo vt. rub something clean. `mərum `məree last night; last evening. ember; burning coal; vt. erase something, as with a rubber. n:time. yesterday. Usage: (P). See: `məroo ‘yesterday’. 253 ya- yaakaa Y yaFeminine diminutive/pejorative prefix to a nominal, adjectival or female human proper name root. Gram: pfx. In the nominal/adjectival lexicon, occurs on colour terms, some insects and lower animals, and certain concepts with a negative connotation, but usually non-productive in this capacity. Productive as a familiar, and in some ways abrupt or impatient-sounding nicknaming prefix to the name root of a girl or woman, generally as addressed by `Yatər her seniors. - y or will it be worse?’ ŋo acin `əm kai `yaanam doto. ‘I ate most of the rice.’ 3 • vs:adv. instead; rather; rather than; instead of. Gram: Preferential verb suffix indicating that the subject will participate in the action indicated by the verb ‘rather than’ or ‘instead of’ some other activity, or will affect the object ‘rather than’ some other thing. `saa ‘familiar/informal nickname of a woman named Kentər’. -`yaa 1 vs:adv. destroy; worsen. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is destroyed, or that its quality or state is made worse as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `tɨɨyaa `tokee, `opoo `təttə! ‘Drink tea instead, you’re drinking nothing but alcohol (recently)!’ no `doyaa `tokee. ‘You have it instead (rather than me).’ ŋo `moyaa `dee. ‘I’ll do it rather (than you), ok?’ yaa `tuyaa vt. kick something. and destroy pcl. much. Gram: Comparative-like particle with the basic meaning ‘much’; when occuring in negative clauses, has the overall meaning ‘not much’. adək yaa kaamaa. ‘There’s `moyaa -`yaa vt. ruin; wreck; destroy. vs:adv. more; more 2 vs:adv. than. Gram: Comparative suffix on not much difference between (those two things).’ `menləə haa yaa kaamaa. ‘There’s not much more to tell.’ -yaa adjectives and verb roots, indicating that a quality or property is more true of the subject than the object, or that the subject participates in some event more than the object does. `ai adj:mono. small. Gram: Adjective root occurring with classifiers and some noun roots to indicate a small size. doryaa ‘small, of an animal’. pfx. Masculine diminutive avuncular prefix to the name root of a male human individual. May only be used by the named individual’s maternal uncles when addressing him directly. yaa- `yaaduu! ‘It’s heavier (than the other one)!’ Aci Toomoo `ŋom kai `yaaduu. ‘Elder Brother Toomoo is bigger than I am.’ `koj-alloo `əm, `ŋunuk `Galoo ɲii ə `yoob `rɨr ku `dɨɨ. `rəken `yaar `dɨɨ, maa `rənek `yaar `dɨɨ. ‘In the future, what will it be like for our Galo. Will life be better, yaakaa Var: `yaakaa (emphatic form). n. multiplicity; large quantity; a lot. `hoo `yaakaa go yubgee nammə `maabə! ‘But you 254 yaanam -yaa...-caa slept a lot last night (how can you still be sleepy)!’ n:qual. many. Gram: Qualifying noun following another noun with the overall sense ‘many N’. ŋo See: yaamee ‘young man’; meetor ‘yeoman’. -`yaayaa ɲidaa lo hoə-hobb `əm yaakaa go `ŋaakaa. ‘I spent lots of mithuns at the wedding.’ adj. many; in multiplicity. `ŋunuk `lo yaakaa `bə `yaraa kaamaa to. ‘We did not have many possessions.’ vs:adv. even more; still more. Gram: Intensifying suffix indicating that some action or condition increases even more or still more than before. al `yaayaa `duuku. ‘It’s improving.’ `nok uun ə `rɨyaa `yaayaa rə. ‘Your wound will worsen.’ `meɲyaa `yaayaa `duu. ‘(You’re) talking too much.’ yaanam vi. 1 • of food or other -yaa-`yaatə vs:asp. to the point of living or once-living matter, to rot or be or become rotten. `yaan `laamaa `bəkaa. ‘Don’t get a rotten one.’ 2 • of a person, useless, lazy and near insanity; to the point of becoming blue in the face; x oneself silly. Gram: Idiomatic predicate ending indicating that the subject performs an event repeatedly, incessantly, or for a long period of time with no effect, so as to render oneself practically mad in the process. Aci `ne ŋo `meɲyaa good-for-nothing. `bɨɨ `yaaduu ku. ‘He’s become lazy/useless.’ `yaanə genre of traditional call-and-response, narrative folksong. `yaan-`mennam ‘to sing a “`yaanə”‘. n. adj. `yaatə! `bɨɨ `tamaa! ‘I told Elder Brother until I was blue in the face, but he wouldn’t listen!’ yaapaa young, of a male. Syn: yaamee. adj. gone rotten; gone off, `yaaruu `yaapak as of leftover foodstuff. adin `əm doku `maabə, `yaapak `mokaa ku. ‘Because of not having in the end eaten the meat, it was made to go off.’ pcl. especially. Gram: Comparative/superlative particle marking a noun as the one ‘especially’ participating in the event/state indicated by the verb, more than anyone else. no `yaaruu `lakaa tɨɨben `yaana! ‘You’re the one who’s a chain-smoker (not me)!’ yaamee male. n. 1 • boy; youth, of a -yaa...-caa 2 • boyhood; (time of) youth, of a adjs:rcom. teeny tiny; small and weakly; dregs of the lot. Gram: Split adjectivalizing suffix occurring on most if not all classifier roots, as well as possibly some if not all noun roots namyaa namcaa `na male. `ŋok yaamee `ogo...‘Back in my childhood...’ adj. young, of a male. `bɨɨ yaamee `duu. ‘He’s Syn: yaapaa. (still) n. young.’ yaamee-meetor strong, healthy yeoman; young man. nam gollo ŋo `duuduu. ‘I live in a tiny little house.’ `aa ərək `aa doryaa dorcaa `duu. ‘That pig is small and weakly.’ buuyaa buucaa `nalok `jilaa `kee. ‘Give me some of whatever bamboo 255 `yai yatər poles you may have (whether long or short, good or poor).’ See: -yaa ‘small’. `yakə yagoo adj. black. See: `yakaa ‘black’. adv. extremely. `yakkaa! `yai yao n. last daughter. See: `tai ‘last n. fool; sophomore; one who son’. lacks knowledge or experience. Usage: commonly used in consort with “peccaa”, as in a string of insults. `yoogo `laa yao `garɨɨb `kaaduu `ko? ‘Why are you staring at me like a fool?’ ace. name for a type of colour which is no longer widely used or known. Usage: generally found only in the compound “yagoo-`yaree” ‘colour-striped’. adj. striped; decorated with coloured stripes, as a tiger. See: yagoo ‘striped’; `yaree ‘multicoloured’. vi. 1 • cascade, as a landslide, or rice grains being poured into a basket. 2 • crumble; fall apart, as of a yagoo-`yaree `yao n:kin. 1 • sister’s son. Usage: used to refer to or address yagnam the son of one’s (married) sister, as well as that of any other married-off female member of one’s clan. 2 • paternal aunt’s son. Usage: used to refer to or address structure due to old age. `kagrɨɨ `ə yakkaa ku. ‘The storeroom fell apart/collapsed (gradually, because it was old).’ the son of one’s father’s sister. `yaŋaa n. female idiot; useless `yao-ootar Usage: (P). n. fool; buffoon. woman. `yaŋaa-`yaraa yaŋgam `yacəp -yak vs:adv. demolish. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is demolished or caused to crumble as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Usually used to describe breaking of objects with some surface area, such as wall-like or pillar-like objects, or some other type of structure. adj. of a woman, clever but useless. See: `yaŋaa ‘female idiot’. n. bush; medium-sized plant. shrub; tuyak something to crumble by kicking it. vt. cause something to crumble by smashing it (as with a hammer). Var: `yakə; vt. cause adj. stingy. no `yacəp-`cəbdɨr `nag `lakaa. ‘You’re a miserly wretch, aren’t you.’ nce. See: yacəm-cəmpə ‘dwarf chameleon fish’. n. Dwarf chameleon yacəm pəəyak `yakaa black. yacəm-cəmpə `yaji fish. Badis badis. adj. yellow. n. soul. `kayaa. adj. yaji-yalo `yajee yatər `yakɨɨ adj. deep black; shining black, approaching or with an overtone of blue, as a black panther. adj. blue; green; aqua. See: `jee ‘grue (green/blue)’. n. last daughter. 256 `yaduk `yapəə-rəənə `yaduk n. variety of tree which their attention. produces excellent firewood. Large and distinctive arrow-like leaf with three points at the tip and two sides. gaayap -`yap beckon; wave at someone to get their attention. vt. `yadɨɨ `locin `locin. pro:int. never; at no time. `ŋunu `opoo `əm `yadɨɨ `locin `əpak `maaduu. ‘At no time do we stop using this rice beer.’ See: `yadə ‘how much/many’; lo ‘in; at’; `cin ‘also’. Var: `yadɨ. pro:int. Var: `yaddɨ Var: -ɲap (P). vs:adv. continuously; constantly; without interruption; for a long time. Gram: Durative temporal suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb takes place continuously without interruption over a particular duration. `tayap `yadə how Gram: Interrogative pronoun of quantity (much); how (many). ɲii `yad goee `laa? ‘How many people was it (who went)?’ `yad `naana `kula? ‘What number (in the birth order) are you?’ no `yad go dorkaa? ‘How much did you pay?’ `yaddəm uur ku `com? ‘I can’t say what time he’ll wake up.’ no `yad `ogo `laa `hukko? ‘When (in the past) did you bathe?’ `hokkə `yad ku maa. ‘It’s not very far from here.’ ɲii `yad kaamaa. ‘There weren’t very many people.’ vt. go on listening; listen without interruption. `bɨɨ ɲɨɨtom `əm `tayap `duu. ‘He goes on listening to songs.’ See: -`hup...-`yap ‘overly’. name. `yapii dearie; sweetie. Affectionate nickname for a female human individual. Somewhat less sweet-sounding than the related term “`apii” ‘sweetie’, but still of approximately the same register. See: `apii ‘sweetie’. adj. white. Syn: puuluu. Var: `pippop (P). n. yapuu `yapop `yadə go Var: `yad go; `yaddɨ go. pro:int. however many. `yad go jirə `dɨɨ, `ək go dorə. ‘However much you give me, that much I’ll eat.’ handclap; clap of the hands. `yapop-cɨɨnam ‘to clap the hands’. yapom `yaddəm pro:int. when (in the future); what time (in the future). no `yaddəm `caar ku? ‘When will you come back (up here)?’ See: `yadə ‘how much/many’; `əm ‘in (the future)’. vs:adv. attract; beckon. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an action is performed in order to get someone’s attention. vt. touch someone to get -yap n. fairie; demon. A variety of potentially dangerous spirit who is believed to live in banyan trees, can fly, controls wild goats and stags, and who has the power to snatch people away and sometimes kill them. At the same time, some “yapom” are benevolent and may save people from death. `yapəə nce. See: `yapəə-rəənə ‘grasshopper variety’. ogyap `yapəə-rəənə n. variety of grasshopper, beige in colour, 257 yapər `yaraa about one length. human finger in yapər butterfly. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: yapər-`poomər ‘butterfly’. nce. n. butterfly. Usage: (P). fishing dam, a complex of tree branches and leaves used as a filtering point to allow fish to enter but not escape. -`yar vs:adv. 1 • often; yapər-`poomər yapkaa yapci n. always; frequently; constantly. Gram: fan. See: taayap ‘fan (L)’. Var: yapsi (P). n. little rascal; little devil; over-precocious, potentially naughty and even foolish child. n. Temporal suffix with the basic meaning ‘often’ or ‘for a long time’. On activity verbs, indicates that several, frequent instances of an event occur over a period of time. On state verbs, indicates that a state continues uninterrupted for a long duration. Aci `bɨɨk ɲimm `əm iŋg yapci-cilii little devil child; literally, ‘little ghost of a newborn baby’. Term applied to over-precocious, naughty and foolish little children. See: yapci ‘rapscallion’; cilii ‘newborn babe’. adj. ‘Elder Brother `yarduu. constantly brings his wife.’ 2 • along. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed at, across or along the length of a space or object with extension and unequal length and breadth, such as a playing field, pole, or bed. `yabur yabo cursed. See: `abur ‘cursed’. ace. See: yalɨɨ-yabo ‘reddish’. vt. fan; wave, using a flat `ciyyar `yar- vt. throw a spear across the length of a space. clfqr. Classifier for lengths, such as bamboo (construed as an object with length). Gram: Root yabnam `yamar `yamuk object. taayap yabduu. ‘(He’s) waving a fan.’ adj. brown. adj. adj:expr. maroon; reddish-brown in colour. form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `əə `yarɲi go ‘two lengths of bamboo’. See: `ayar ‘length’. `yamuk-`yaruk yamə quite maroon; quite reddish-brown. See: `yamuk ‘maroon’. nce. See: takom-yamə ‘insect `yaraa variety’. yamdɨɨ n. dense, tangled jungle. yamdɨɨ-polɨɨ n. lesser coucal, a variety of redwinged cuckoo. Centropus toulou bengalis. See: yamdɨɨ ‘dense jungle’. n. element of a “`hibok” `yamnə Var: `yəraa ~ `həraa (P). n. good(s); possession; belonging; property; stuff; thing(s); object. Usage: General name used to refer to something which is owned by or used in some way by human beings. Not generally used to refer to natural entities which have no relationship to or which do not fall within the domain of human beings, hence is somewhat less general than English ‘thing’. `yaraa puggoo nam ‘to go around selling 258 `yaree `yup- things’. `yasi-boobɨɨ ‘stench of urine’. `yaree yarok adj. multicoloured; having yuu many mixed-up colours. adj. covetous; gluttonous; greedy. yarok `kaapaa `bə doyoo `kee. ‘Don’t eat looking as though you were a glutton.’ `yarɨɨ `yarɨɨ-hinam ‘to die from starvation’. adj. extended; long, of e.g. n. chilli pepper. Capsicum n. starvation. `yarsoo `yaluk spp. Var: `yuu; `yu. pcl. so they say; so it is said; I heard (that). Gram: Reportative particle indicating that the speaker’s knowledge of a given statement came about via overhearing, being told, being signalled, or by having otherwise gleaned secondhand information from another person’s communicative performance Usage: Very often occurs in a story. yalo n. spirit; soul. adj. 1 • sexually `yaloo promiscuous, especially of a woman but potentially also for a man. 2 • transgressing; committing social sins of any variety, of a man or woman. construction “yukə”. Takes tone-spreading from an adjacent word. “`iikaa `duubə” `əmlaa `yuu. “We’ll just have to find out,” he said. `əmbə `rɨbbee `yukə. ‘It happened like that, so they say.’ `ar go `rola, `kaar nammə yuu. ‘One morning he sneaked up and peeped in, so it’s said.’ əmd naa `yuna. ‘It’s said that he says like this.’ `yuunam `yuumə vi. 3 • renegade; wandering; not sitting quietly but going around busily doing one’s own activities. `nok ərək ə `yaloo `nag `lakaa. ‘Your pig is a real renegade (going around from house to house without plan).’ `yuukuu weight’. flex; be flexible. ‘bend of its own n. anal hair; pubic hair of the anus area. vs:advs. flex. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that something flexes, or bends but doesn’t break, as a result of the action indicated by the verb. See: `yuunam ‘be flexible’; -`yuu...-`yəə `yaloo-`loodɨr yalo-gognam yalɨɨ highly promiscuous; unrepentantly slutty. See: `yaloo ‘slut’. adj. vt. call a soul; chant to or for a soul. See: yalo ‘soul’; adj. red; red in colour. `yəənam ‘keel’. -`yup gognam ‘call’. vs:val. cause someone to sleep. Gram: Result suffix indicating yalɨɨ-yabo `yasi that the action indicated by the verb results in someone going to or being put to sleep ŋo `bɨəm `dooyup adj. reddish in colour; mostly red; red with something else mixed in. See: yalɨɨ ‘red’. n. Var: `yesi. `yasi-hɨɨnam ‘to urine. urinate’. kaa. ‘I made him sleep (I’m also lying down, but not sleeping).’ gaarii ə `ŋom `əgyup `duu. ‘The car is bouncing me to sleep.’ `yup- clfr. Classifier for nights, in 259 `yupko `yoo the sense of a full dusk-dawn cycle. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `yuppii ‘four full nights’. See: `ayup ‘night (with one hand).’ -`yek cycle’. vs:adv. stuck; caught. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something gets stuck or gets caught as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vi. get caught, as in a net, `yupko n. 1 • sleeping area; sleeping place; any place where someone will sleep. 2 • bedroom. `jəryek `tuyek and be spinning about, as a bird. vt. kick and get caught (as in a net). vi. jump into a trap; jump and get stuck. `yubnam vi. sleep. `kaju, `yublaa `ju. ‘Come on, let’s go to bed.’ vi. oversleep; sleep late. `yuppo yubnam `pogyək `yegnam `yupp `dagla `kaa. ‘I’ve overslept, for heaven’s sake.’ vt. overshadow; of a large tree, to overgrow a smaller tree and not allow sunlight to reach it in sufficient quantity to enable healthy growth and fruiting. `əə `ə `ammom `yubduu. ‘The bamboo is overshadowing the rice paddy.’ vt. adhere to something, as a hitchhiker seed on the skin; cause something to get stuck or adhere. `bəlaa `abak `ə lalɨk `əm `yegduu. ‘The jackfruit resin is adhering to the shirt.’ vi. 1 • spin in a circle, yennam (2) as a top. 2 • be `yum- clfqr. Quantity classifier for handfuls. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `yumɲi ‘two handfuls’. See: `ayum ‘handful’. dizzy; experience a spinning head. dumpoo `yedduu. ‘My head is spinning.’ yeggoo `yemnam adj. circling, as a circling wind. yeggoo `na door ‘a circling wind (as a tornado)’. vi. sway, as a group v:inc.arg.O. urinate. `yumaa `yumii n. dream. adj. sleepy. `yumii `ə! `yublaa `kuju `kee! ‘I’m sleepy! Let’s go to bed!’ See: yumaa ‘dream’. Gram: Need to think about whether in the jmi modu example above it’s actually in a nominal function, as ‘fatigue’ standing in line together. `yesi-hɨɨnam `yoo n:qual. etcetera; and all that 1 (sort of stuff); and so on; or so; or thereabouts; or something like that. Gram: Qualifying noun which may follow either a noun or a verb; if a verb, it inflects like the preceding verb. Gives the basic meaning that something more or less similar to the mentioned thing, but potentially less important, is also part of the depicted event or state. `ŋun `yumii-`yumaa `yumnam n. dream. vt. grasp or scoop a solid or particular substance, as uncooked rice or dried beans, using one hand only. `ambin `əm `yumt `kee. ‘Scoop up the rice `hibok `yoo aɲɲii go `pəla. ‘We 260 `yoo `yooyoo did a little dam-fishing and so on.’ `yoo Var: `yoola. pcl. what’s the problem? Gram: Extended particle sense of the question form “`yoo laa” ‘what?’ occurring at the end of a sentence. Marks information as something that the listener should have no problem with, but for some reason is prevaricating about. dot 2 Prohibitive predicate suffix indicating the speaker’s desire that the addressee should not do the action indicated by the verb `meɲyoo, dei! ‘Don’t tell her, got it?’ `meɲyoo `kee! ‘Shut up!’ `ŋom `den `abbom payoo `kaa. ‘But me, the father, don’t kill (me).’ `yoo! ~ dotə `yoola! ‘Go ahead and eat it (no ill will befall you, as you seem to be supposing).’ `bɨɨcin `yoo! ‘He also did it, I’m telling you!’ `nəə `ə `mohi to `yoola! ‘You yourself do it yourself!’ `yoogo Var: `yoog. pro:int. what thing. hɨg `yoog `bəree? ‘What (sort of) thing is this?’ pro. something; `yoo or something; an/or so on. `kəb `paamaa `rəm pɨpə `yoogo `laalaa `na. ‘If you can’t find anything else, get some eggs or something.’ pro:int. what. Gram: 3 Interrogative pronoun of content `yoogə `yoo `rɨkaa? ‘What happened?’ no `yoo `rɨduu `naala? ‘What are you up to?’ no `bolo `yoo `əmlaa insaa? ‘For what purpose are you going down?’ pro. any; anything. Gram: Indefinite pronoun of content. When occurring in a negative sentence, gives the sense ‘nothing’ `yoocin momaa. pro:int. (by) what/which means. Gram: Genitive/perlative interrogative pronoun no `yoogə `laa `iŋko? ‘By what means did you go (train, bus, etc.)?’ `yoocin ‘(I’m) not up to anything.’ `bɨəm `yoo jis kaaku maa. ‘There wasn’t anything else to give to her.’ anything. Usage: generally occurs in the negative, with the overall sense ‘nothing’. `bulləm `yoocin memmaa. ‘He didn’t say a thing to them.’ pro. Var: `coonam. vi. gallop; run, of a four-legged animal such as horse, cow, or dog. pro:int. how; in what way; why. Gram: Dative non-personal `yoonam `yoobə -yoo vs:adv. insult. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that someone is insulted by the action indicated by the verb, or that it is brought about in an insulting way. vt. speak insultingly; insult someone with one’s words; belittle. `bɨɨ `ŋom `meɲyoo `la `menduu. ‘He’s talking about me in an insulting way.’ vt. insult someone. `meɲyoo interrogative pronoun, usually used in matters of reason or explanation: ‘how is it possible (that)’; ‘how can it be (that); ‘for what reason can it be (that)’ or ‘for what purpose’. `moŋoo `him `paala, `yoobə `rooduu `naala?’ ‘I’m in the middle of cooking (the food), why are you scolding me?’ `rɨyoo -yoo `yooyoo vs:mod. don’t (do that)! Gram: pro:int. what sort. Gram: Interrogative pronoun implying that 261 `yoolo -yom the speaker supposes there is more than one unknown thing, and is asking what it is `yooyoo `gola inquire about a location via or through which a known object is moving or has moved. 4 • by what means; how is it possible (that). Gram: Mediative interrogative pronoun, used to inquire about the means or method through which an action is performed. Usage: Often used in an `bəətuu `ko? ‘What sort of things have you brought?’ `yooyoo `əm `dol rəkaa `com? ‘What sort of things might they have eaten to survive?’ n:qual. etcetera; and all that sort of thing; and whoever/whatever else. Gram: Qualifying noun following another noun, indicating that some things or people more or less like the mentioned thing, but potentially less important, also participate in the depicted event/state. oo `yooyoo `əm ironic sense, as when the speaker believes that there is no possible means through which an actor is capable of performing some action. `bul `yoolok `cenrə `na? ‘How would they know?’ yoktam Yoŋgo `maduu. ‘I’m searching vegetables and suchlike.’ for n. flat side of a blade. Usage: (P). See: `rogbar ‘flat side of name. name of an important river in the Pugo area, often spelled “Yomgo”. a blade’. `yoolo Var: yool. pro:int. pro:int. where. Gram: Interrogative pronoun of place `yool `laa `iŋko? ‘Where have you been?’ `yool `bəree? ‘Where is it (the place I am asking about)?’ `yoo `lobə `ree? ‘In what (location) is it (the thing I am asking about)?’ 2 • pro:int. anywhere. `yool `lacin `rəlaa `duu. ‘He can live anywhere/in any old place.’ yonam vt. fornicate; fuck; have sex. `bul yomin `hiduu. ‘They’re having sex.’ n. fine for adultery. yopor `yomur `yolɨɨ vt. commit adultery; have illicit sexual relations. vi. horny; feel the urge to `yoolokə pro:int. 1 • where...from; from which (place). Gram: Ablative interrogative pronoun, used to inquire about the source or origin of an object. no `yoolok ɲii ə `laa? have sex. `yobnam `yopci Var: `jobnam. vi. jump, in general, whether high or long. vt. reach what one is jumping for. vi. jump up. vt. ‘Where are you from?’ (lit. ‘You’re a person from which place?’). 2 • which; which one (of them). Gram: Selective interrogative pronoun, used to inquire about an unknown member of a known set. `yobduu `yobboo `yobram `yobloo -yom jump over something. vi. miss the target one vi. jump down. `yoolok `ikii `əla `nom `ŋamko? ‘Which of the dogs bit you?’ 3 • via where. Gram: Perlative interrogative pronoun, used to is jumping to reach. Var: -ɲom. vs:adv. combined. 262 `keyyom yɨɨji Gram: Result suffix indicating that an item is added to something else or combined into something else as a result of the action indicated by the verb remaining or holding out after all others have departed. `turyɨɨ alive. vi. be the last one left `keyyom gaayom ciɲyom `yombə vt. grind some items `tɨɨyɨɨ together, as in cooking. vt. mix up something by kneading, as rice and vegetables with one’s hands. vt. season a dish by sprinkling some powdery flavouring agent into it. vi. be the last one left drinking. vi. straggle; be the last one left staying in a place. vi. straggle; be the last one `duuyɨɨ `rəyɨɨ -`yɨɨ living in a place. 2 vs:adv. wither; wear out. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something withers or is worn out as a result of the action indicated by the verb. Var: `yoombə; `yoomb. pro:int. how; in what way (is/was an action performed). Gram: Interrogative pronoun of manner. no `gəyɨɨ `yombə `laa acin `əm `dokko? ‘How are you/have you been eating (since your right hand is fractured)?’ vi. wear something out, as clothing. `ŋok `ejj `əm `gəyɨɨ kaaku. ‘I’ve worn out my clothes.’ vt. wear out from rolling, as a stone or a tire. vt. abrade; wear out by yor- clfr. Classifier for mountain ranges. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. n:time. midnight; deep night. `dugyɨɨ `nəryɨɨ -yɨɨ rubbing. vs:adv. copy. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the actor is participating in the action indicated by the verb to copy others, or because others are. vs:nzr. -mate; partner. Gram: Nominalizing suffix forming a noun with the meaning of a partner in doing some action. `yoraa adj. be midnight; be late or deep night. `ay-`yoraa kaaku. ‘It’s gotten late (near midnight).’ `yordii yornam n:poet. mountain. Usage: Goŋku. vt. chant (variety). Usage: generally occurs together with associated nominal “`guupə”. See: `guupə-yornam ‘chant (variety)’. tɨɨyɨɨ vt. drink because everyone else is drinking. yolaa -`yɨɨ n. semen; Syn: `maglaa. sperm. 1 vs:adv. remain; hold out. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is last among a group in the action indicated by the verb, or is n. drinking buddy. `Takə, `nok tɨɨyɨɨ ə `yəəla? ‘Takv, who was your drinking partner (~ who was the person with whom you drank)?’ yɨɨji n. garbage fly; variety of large, green fly. 263 `yɨɨdum `yəə `yɨɨdum Var: `yuudum (P). n. surrounding balcony.’ sacrificial offering of an animal, as part of a ceremonial offering to spirits, often for the purpose of treating a disease. May be casually used to refer to the overall event of an animal sacrifice, but properly designates the sacrificed animal itself, although only after its life has been taken. Prior to the actual taking of the life, the animal must be described as a living being, as “`kiilee” ‘living dog’. `yɨɨdum `ikii `əm `pəək `tokee. ‘Beat the sacrificial dog to death.’ yɨgnam vt. skirt; move around the edges of something. yɨggoo Yɨŋkoŋ -yɨr vi. circumscribe; skirt around the edges of something, as a house. name. Yingkiong, capital of the Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh. vs:adv. skirt around the edges. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that an activity is directed around the edges, or along the brim, of an object. vt. cut around in a circle, as when preparing a bamboo container. yɨɨnam `yɨɨpii `yɨɨpə vi. waft, of smoke, fog, kɨɨyɨr `yɨrken cloud, or any other vaporous substance. n. variety of very small fly. nce. See: `yɨɨpə-roodoo ‘fly n. variety of fly. n. 1 • beeswax, especially from the “`tayɨr” bee. variety’. 2 • honey made from the “`tayɨr” bee. See: `tayɨr ‘a kind of small, `yɨɨpə-roodoo `yɨɨbum vt. fly-like bee’. bake something in dugout earth, with coals heaped over the top. A preferred slow-cooking method for root vegetables, such as tapiocas, yams or potatoes. iŋin `əm `imik `bolo `yɨɨbum `tokee. ‘Earth-bake the yams in the fire-pit.’ vs:adv. `yɨrcoo `yɨrnə Var: `yɨrsoo (P). n. variety of fish. n. 1 • go-getter; eager beaver; someone who will not leave a stone unturned, nor a thing undone, in his efforts to accomplish a particular task. 2 • God; the creator; the perfect -yɨk circumscribe; skirt being. around. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed around an object yɨrbɨɨ `yəə adj. full, of the moon. Var: `yə. pro:int. who. Gram: Interrogative pronoun of person. `yəə `bəree? ‘Who’s there?’ pro. anyone. Gram: Indefinite pronoun of person. When used in a negative sentence together with “`cin” ‘also’, gives the sense ‘no-one’ iɲyɨk n. border; edges; skirts; balcony. vi. circumscribe; move around the edges of an object or terrain. iɲyɨk `gə iɲyɨk `tokee. ‘Go around (the house) via the `yəəcin `duumaa. nobody there.’ ‘There was 264 -yəə -yək -yəə vs:adv. to the side; to one side. Gram: Directional suffix indicating (of an intransitive verb) that the subject directs his activity to one side, as when taking the side of a path or when looking to the side to avoid seeing something. Of a transitive verb, indicates that the object is caused to move to the side, as when pushing something out of the way. vt. look to the side, as to avoid seeing someone or something. `yəəpoo `yəəloo `yəənam vi. topple across the breadth of a space. vi. fall downhill, as a felled tree. kaayəə jugyəə tabyəə nɨɨyəə `yəək avoid; ignore; keep 2 vt. away from someone. `hiloo-`məroo `ŋom `yəəduu ku. ‘Recently they’ve been ignoring/spurning me.’ `yəə-`bəree vi. ride something to the side of the path, as to give way. vi. grow or lean to the side or off-kilter, as of bamboo. vt. push something; aside; push out of the way. Var: `yək. pro:int. whose. Gram: Interrogative pronoun of person, Genitive case. Used to inquire about the possessor of an object. `hɨgɨ int. dim light; a time of day when it is necessary to ask someone who they are, since one cannot recognize them by looking. `ŋuɲɲə `yəə-`bəree `əmduu `bə kaarɨk hito. ‘We met at the time of who-is-it (i.e., during the time when there is not enough light to determine who someone is from just looking).’ See: `yəə ‘who’; `bəree ‘Conjectural particle’. Var: `yəm. pro:int. whom. Gram: Interrogative pronoun of person, Accusative case ŋo `yəmcin `yəəm `yəkkə `laa? ‘Whose is this?’ no `yəək `iŋko `lola `int `duuko? ‘With whom are you going?’). `kaalɨɨ maa. ‘I don’t want to see anyone.’ `yəənam 1 vi. topple; keel or fall `yəəyɨɨ nce. See: `yəəyɨɨ-paacaa over, as of a tree; collapse, of a house; sway or stagger when walking, as when drunk. koluu ə `yəəkaa. ‘The plantain fell over.’ vt. topple something; fell something, as a tree. `hɨɨn `əm `yəəkaa ku. ‘I felled the tree.’ ‘shadow’. `yəəyɨɨ-paacaa Var: `yəəyɨɨ-paasaa (P). 1 • shadow; reflection. n. 2 • mirage; sunshadow; a figure `yəəjap `yəətap vt. fall over, flattening something, as a tree falling on a granary. vi. fall over, as a tree. vi. fall uphill, as a felled falsely seen after one has stared directly at a bright light for some time. -yək `yəəduu vs:adv. braid. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is braided or put into a braided shape as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `həmbə aɲɲii go `koyək tree such that it won’t roll away. `gamlaa `na. ‘Braid it a little bit like this.’ 265 yəgnam -`yər yəgnam vt. affix; attach; bind, as when affixing a poster to a surface or tying a knot. `hɨgɨm ŋo yəkkər kaa. ‘I tied this in a knot.’ rhythmic chanting, waving of swords, and bobbing of knees. `yəbə-`cənam ‘to appeal to the spirits’. yəmaa -`yər yəcu Var: yəccu. int. watch it! look out! be careful! Usage: Interjection n. n. pauper; Syn: ɲimaa. poor person. of caution or warning. `yəbə prayer; spell; content and/or procedure of supplication or beseeching of a god, deity or spirit. Often has an angry, challenging or provocative overtone, as though one were damning or condemning the spirits for their deeds or lack thereof. Traditionally included vs:adv. mix; mix up. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is mixed or mixed up as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `amp `əm `laa acin `əm `moyər higə rəkumə, `opop `lɨgrə ku. ‘After the husks and the rice are mixed up together, we’ll put in the starter yeast.’ 266 -raa `raanam R -raa Var: -yaa (P). vs:adv. 1 • instead of someone else; on someone else’s behalf. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is acting instead or in place of someone else who may otherwise be responsible for some activity. When occurring together with Reflexive suffix “-hi”, the sense is rather ‘instead of doing some other activity (which the subject was supposed to do)’. 2 • isolated; alone; odd man out. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject is odd man out, or is acting alone, differently, or in isolation from others in the action indicated by the verb. May have a negative implication, to the effect that the subject is doing something other than what people are normally supposed to do. `bɨɨ `kaapaa - r `rɨraa-doraa vt. work in someone’s stead; serve someone, as a servant or slave. `rɨraa-`menraa vt. prepare something on behalf of other people. `bɨɨ donam `əm `rɨraa-`menraa `duu. ‘He’s responsible for (preparing) the food (for all the others).’ n. `raakop `raacəə turtle; tortoise. Syn: kəhuu. Var: lellɨɨ-paatuu (P). n. woven back-piece, used as a backpack for men, as well as a cushion when carrying baskets. n. variety of lead earring, coilor spring-shaped. raaji raakaa ku. ‘He alone saw (what it was).’ `aken `gonna `cenraa maa. ‘One of them wasn’t aware of (what the others were doing).’ raaji-`bələə n. earrings of various varieties. See: raaji ‘earring variety’; `bələə ‘long beaded earring’. kaaraa toraa vt. look after someone. `raajuu vt. wait for someone or something. `rɨraa vt. 1 • do something in someone else’s stead, as when helping an ill person with chores. ager `rɨraa `na ‘employee/worker in the fields of another person; slave’. vi. aloof; not conscious of or n. variety of fish trap, a densely-woven conical basket resembling an “`igin”, used as a trap in small-scale stone-and-basket fishing. See: kunam ‘fish using a basket trap’. 1 `raanam `raanam vi. get an erection; get a Var: `umnam (P). vt. stew; hard-on; have an erect penis. 2 not participating in the activities of the majority. `cenl `pə məəmaa nam `ləgaa `bə, `cemmaa `bə `rɨraa `duuku. ‘Because of not placing a value on learning, they’ve become aloof.’ cook by simply boiling, especially vegetables; boil without adding any extra flavourings, except perhaps for a little salt. ŋo oo `əm `raaduu. ‘I’m stewing the vegetables.’ 267 raapɨr `rakkə raapɨr root, generally of a large or well-established plant or tree. Usage: unlike “apɨr”, not used to indicate ‘vein’. See: apɨr ‘vein; nerve; root’. n. Var: `hɨɨpɨr (P). `rakik n. coagulated smoke on any surface, such as bamboo rafters, oil/fat drippings, or cobwebs. -rak...-cak reckless raapɨr-raamaa Var: `hɨɨpɨr-`hɨɨmaa (P). n. root, in general. Syn: apɨr-amaa. See: raapɨr ‘root’; raamaa ‘creeping root’. vs:advsr. recklessly; with abandon. Gram: Split manner suffix indicating that the subject is out-of-control, or is causing things to happen or to be affected all over the place, or here and there in an unsystematic manner. omee ə raapko n. skewer. See: `ɨkoo ‘skewer’. nce. Usage: (P). tarak tacak `duu. ‘The kid is making a bloody racket.’ `ragdɨɨ ragnam adj. sheer; extremely steep. raamaa `raarə `raarə raek -rak creeping root. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: raapɨr-raamaa ‘root’. 1 ace. See: `buumə-`raarə ‘all dressed-up’. 2 n. variety of edible plant, enjoyed as a vegetable. Viewed as closely related to “jooko”. n. bowstring; line of string or be out-of-control; be 1 vi. hyperactive; act without direction and with reckless abandon, especially of a naughty child lacking discipline. `ahi omee `ahi `maaj ragben `duu. ‘This kid is completely out-of-control (scratching, beating, whining, etc.).’ ragnam cord connecting the two ends of a bow from which an arrow is shot. vs:adv. 1 • hoard; do something 2 vt. 1 • fence an area; lay fencing. holuu-ragnam ‘to lay fencing’. 2 • plait or weave with large in a hoarding or gluttonous manner. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts like a glutton in the action indicated by the verb, is trying to hoard things or is otherwise selfishly accumulating things. `bɨɨ `majjaa `bə dorak strips. raggoo vt. fence in; surround something with fencing. rɨkk `əm holuu raggoo `laa ap nammə `yukə. ‘The say the field has been fenced off.’ `duu. `kopak apaa `gocin jimaa. ‘He’s so miserly. He won’t even part with a single banana.’ 2 • recklessly; ragnam vt. lick, 3 Var: yagnam (P). with a fully flattened tongue. Var: `yagnam (P). v:c.arg. flash, of lightning. Gram: Generally associated noun ‘lightning’ `ragnam acting with reckless abandon. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject acts with reckless abandon in the course of bringing about the action indicated by the verb. `hiloo inrak occurs with “`doorak” `doorak-`ragnam ‘the flashing of lightning’. `hil rəto. ‘(I) went all over the place today.’ `rakkə vi. be killed by lightning. `is rɨk `bəə ɲii go `doorak `ə `rakkə `laa `atuu. ‘A guy was 268 `ragree məəram killed by lightning down in the field.’ ŋo `hibuu `əm koorap rə. ‘I’m going to row across the river.’ `ragree n. rail; railing; pole or set of `rapko bamboo poles running the circumference of a Galo house, serving as a railing to prevent children and drunken people from falling from the balcony, as well as a backrest when sitting on the balcony and a frame from which to suspend a loin loom. raŋ n. lead, a heavy, soft type of metal. Var: rasək (P). n. landslide. racek `ratə n:time. twelfth moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-November to mid-December. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of December. fireplace shelving complex, a massive structure of three or four layered shelves suspended above a fireplace. Used for storage of all manner of thing, including pots and pans and other cooking utensils, baskets, weaving materials, drying and dried foods, and firewood. Generally used for several years, taking on a thick black caking of soot as a result. Properly denotes only the main, largest shelf located in the centre of the complex, but is commonly used to refer to the whole complex. n. rabgur `ranam vt. assemble; weave loosely or repair roughly. `igin `əm `ratum `tokee. ‘Put together the “`igin” basket.’ vt. drag; pull a usually large Var: yabgur (P). n. doorjamb; barrier to a doorway used for keeping babies inside and animals out, while still allowing easy passage to adults. ranam `rabgo object, with one end continuously touching the ground. `hott `ə `hɨɨpoo `əm `raduu. ‘The elephant is dragging the logs.’ Var: `eyap (P). n. doorway; entrance or exit. vt. cross a river, as by boat or raft. ŋo `hibuu `əm rabrə. ‘I’ll cross the river (by raft).’ rabnam -ram `ranə 1 n. beam framing the interior of a “ɲoopee” wall, generally formed of a single 3-4” diameter bamboo pole which is often split in half lengthwise. vs:adv. 1 • ill. Gram: Manner suffix indicating an ill aspect to the action indicated by the verb. 2 • fail. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject’s effort to bring about the action indicated by the verb ends in failure. `ranə -rap 2 n. boar sow; female wild boar. vs:adv. across. Gram: Directional suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in or involves A crossing B, as a river. `rɨram vt. fail to do something (as some work). `moram vt. fail in one’s efforts to produce something. vi. `mɨɨ `hibuu `əm jaarap `duu. ‘He’s swimming across the river.’ məəram feel See: `pinram uneasy. ‘plot unsuccessfully’. 269 ramcəə `morik ramcəə nce. See: tako-ramcəə ‘kindling’. `ramnam vi. be brittle. `ŋok namm ə `ramduu ku. ‘My house has become brittle/is starting to fall apart.’ which may be used as tinder. May also be used to refer to other types of tinder. `riibo ramnam n. fever. no ram kaadoo `ree? ‘Do you have a fever?’ vi. have a fever. n. variety of small cold river fish, with leopard-like designs and stripes bent at an arrow-like angle on the tail. Schistura spp. n. 1 • variety of tree, from which colour was traditionally obtained for dying fabric. Usage: prob. riiraa `rampin ‘otter’. n. otter skin. See: horam n. smallpox. 2 • cinnamon. neologism. `rambuk `ramrɨɨ ramlii ramlɨɨ `raraa `riilum riiloo `riihor -rik adj. miserly. nce. See: cilii-ramlii n. anklet bangle; bracelet worn on the ankle. nce. n. See: kamgo-riiloo ‘hag’. (hilii-ramlii) ‘epidemic’. n. variety of creeper. Var: `laraa (P). n. back-piece variety Aborichthys spp. of fish. or backpack with an added insulting covering made from “talee” plant, with the rough appearance of bearskin, used to protect the wearer from rain as well as to store small items found when travelling; also may afford the wearer some protection in a battle, and aid to create a fearsome or warlike appearance. vs:adv. apart. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something comes apart, breaks in two, or is separated from a whole as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. cut something in two. kɨɨrik garik vt. whittle cleanly off. something parik `riiŋum riitak n. variety of fish. vt. cut something cleanly off, as when hacking off a bamboo edge in one clean stroke. vt. break pulling, as rope. vt. nce. wild coriander. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: orii-riitak ‘wild coriander’. vt. string together; thread `purik apart by riinam peerik -`rik slice something together, as a garland of flowers or a bead necklace; skewer, as meat on a stick. cleanly off. vs:adv. punish; torture. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb amounts to an act of torture or punishment. `riikoo `riipuu vt. make a hole through something when threading. n. wood shavings; wood `menrik `morik scraps resulting from whittling harass with one’s words. vt. vt. someone punish. torture; 270 `roorik `ruu `morik `tokee! ‘Punish him!’ or ‘Torture him!’ as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `roorik `rikoo `rinam rebuke someone; scold someone harshly as punishment for an infraction. vt. nce. See: nampə-`rikoo `moru Var: `mor. vt. cause a fire; cause something to burn. omee ə `əmm `əm `mor kaa. ‘The kid caused a fire.’ ‘ground space under house’. v:c.arg. study. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “pori” ‘studies’ `pori-`rinam -`ruu into a hole. Gram: 1 vs:adv. Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is, or results in something being, directed into a hole. 2 ‘to study’. `ritom -`ruu vs:adv. definitely; certainly; vt. teach, as in school. absolutely. See: `pori ‘study’. `rinnam (1) vt. hoard; collect but not use, especially of children; keep without sharing, in a miserly, greedy or selfish manner. no `aken `ə `naruu `əm `riŋŋam `taduu ku `lakaa! ‘For heaven’s sake, you’re hoarding every last morsel for yourself!’ vi. be burned by fire, of a living thing; have the skin rubbed raw, as from a rope burn; be chafed, as of skin. `taɲ donam ə `ŋok nappaa `rinduu. ‘Having eaten lime, my mouth is chafed.’ adj. rustle, as wind Gram: Definitive predicate suffix with the basic sense ‘certainly’, ‘definitely’ or ‘absolutely, without fail’. When occurring together with Comparative suffix “-`yaa”, gives a superlative sense ‘(the) most’. `jiruu `lakaa! ‘Give it rinnam (1) to me without fail!’ `buppɨɨ `lok aɲɲii `yaaruu `na ‘the smallest of all of them’. `ap `dakkom `ann `dakkom, puuluu `ruu rəku. ‘Whether or male or female, they’ll certainly be white.’ `aci `ruub nɨkt `kaa!” “Give her a really good poke!” `ruu pcl. most; especially; exactly; ribii-roboo -ru definitely; precisely; utterly; Gram: doubtlessly; actually. Superlative particle with a wide-ranging set of emphatic or focusing senses. Within a temporal noun phrase, precedes the temporal demonstrative and has the sense ‘exactly; precisely (at that time)’. Following a nominalized clause, has a sense like ‘absolutely; utterly (the thing denoted, in terms of the nominalized predicate)’. Following the focused nominal of a cleft construction, has the sense ‘precisely; doubtlessly; none other than (this one)’. Following a common nominal, seems to have the sense alike to ‘even; none other than (this); so far as to include (this)’. `əg `ruu. ‘Utterly through a paddy field. Var: -r. vs:adv. poisoned; under a spell. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something or someone is poisoned, put under a spell, or otherwise debilitated as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. poison something or `moru someone. `kobuu `əm donam lo `mor `tokee. ‘Poison the rat (by putting poison) in his food.’ -`ru vs:adv. burnt. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is burned 271 ruuken `rugdɨk `ŋunuk `iidak `ruu so.’ `ogo...‘Right (exactly) when we got down here...’ lagi nam `ruu `əm, `ŋun aɨɨ ə `mohi to. ‘Absolutely everything we needed, we made by ourselves.’ 2 • will something to happen, as ruuken n. soft spot near the ear (in front of and behind); vulnerable spot which a man may be killed if struck upon forcefully. n. ear piercing; hole in the ear from which an earring can be hung. `ruukoo of a spirit or God; control or determine someone’s fate or destiny. dooɲ-taləə ruumaa `rəm, `ŋom tabb ə `gammaa rə. ‘If the heavens don’t will it, I won’t be bitten by the snake.’ dooɲ-`poolo `ŋom `ɲit `doobə `ruuduu. ‘I’m rich because of the grace of Donyi-Polo.’ dooɲ-taləə ruur `əm, ɲidoo oj rə `com. ‘If the heavens will it, I suppose it may rain for us.’ vt. pierce an ear. `ruupuk `ruubək ear. n. ear wax. Var: `ruubɨk (P). n. right ruugok `ruuci `ruuci 1 adj. ring, of the ears. Var: `ruusi (P). n. left ear. Var: `ruusi (P). n. variety of `ruumə `rukcɨɨ 2 Var: `ruum. n. ear hair; hair protruding from the ears. Var: `ruksɨ (P). n. variety of small ant. See: `rukcɨɨ-meelɨɨ ‘ant (variety)’. ear disease, in which the ear becomes wet and bad-smelling, and pus also emerges. `bɨɨ `ruuc `billa. ‘He’s got an ear disease (lit., he’s flowing with ear disease).’ `rukcɨɨ-meelɨɨ `ruuci-talɨɨ ruujak ruuji n. water coming from the ears. See: `ruuci ‘ear disease’. adj. split, of the ear, whether n. variety of extremely small black ant with a painful bite. See: `rukcɨɨ ‘ant variety’. nce. ant mound. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `taruk-`rukpum ‘ant nest’. n. variety of ant, relatively n. small variety of tree nce. See: `rugdam-`paatə n. `rukpum `ruksɨr small. by birth or by accident. Var: ruuj. adj. deaf. `ŋok `an ruuj `nag `na! ‘My mother’s a deaf one, see!’ ruuj jiben `jaaduu. ‘He’s too bloody deaf.’ `rugdaa fern. ruunam conserve; use with 1 vt. caution or sparingly; store; economize. ŋo `ambin `əm `ruuduu. ‘I’m conserving the rice (because we may not have enough to last).’ 2 `rugdam ‘ant variety’. `rugdam-`paatə ruunam ruunam vt. make a hole. vt. 1 • plan variety of large, black ant, which blows a white foamy irritant from its behind when disturbed. 3 something; `rugdɨk form a plan. n. variety of fern, used as an ingredient in pork and dog meat dishes. 272 `rugnam `təərum `rugnam ruji vi. of a plant, to wither and dry up; of a natural area, to become barren, dry and lifeless. n. small torch; one, two or three burning pieces of wood, used to light an area in the dark. vi. `ke! ‘Burn off the field (to clear it)!’ -`rup runam Var: `yunam (P). 1 1 • slide, of a human vs:adv. obscured; covered up completely. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something is completely obscured or covered up as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. heal over; spread over something, sealing it. `ɨlɨɨ `ə `ləbor `əm `geerup kaa. ‘The stone (rose up and) overspread her ankles.’ vt. overspread; cover something by swelling over it. vt. when sliding down a surface. 2 • fall `geerup out, of something ordinarily attached, such as human hair; fall off, as the leaves of a tree. adum ə `ruduu. ‘(My) hair’s falling out.’ vi. fall clean away; fall off such that no residue is remaining. `hɨɨn ann ə `rubin `rukak `duuku. ‘The leaves of the tree are completely shaved off (of themselves).’ vi. slide down, as from a `goorup `rubin-`rukak `poorup tight. cover n. something dark moon; `poolo-`lorup lack of moon. `morup `rubuu vt. cover something up. `ruloo banister, cliff or tree branch. no `ruloo `tokee! ‘You slide down from (the tree)!’ `runam or 1 vi. sneak, as when hunting deceiving Usage: Rare/archaic someone. in Lare; n. element of a loin loom, a bamboo tube set towards the top side, possibly as a kind of top-frame. Set above the “loomee”, and below the “`gurnə-`naanə”, which may fold under it. Var: yum (P). clfr. Classifier for nights. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `rumɲi ‘two nights’. See: arum ‘evening’. vs:adv. evenly; uniformly. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is conducted in an even or uniform manner. adj. uniform; even. birii `əm `molak maar `əm, `təərum `bə `gumaa `duu. ‘If (you) aren’t able to make (a rolled cigarette) properly, (it) won’t common in Pugo. rum- runam vi. float, as on water. `iss `ə 2 `hɨɨpoo `əm rug `duu. ‘The river is carrying along the log (floating it).’ `runam be entranced; be in a trance. `ɲibbo `ruduu ku. ‘The shaman has gone into a trance.’ 2 Var: `yunam (P). -rum vi. runam 3 Var: `yunam (P). vt. bury `təərum something. `runam vt. burn something using a 3 torch or other fire source; light something on fire. rɨkk `əm `rut 273 garum `ree burn evenly when smoking it.’ kaaree vt. look down on garum vt. cut uniformly to give a someone. finishing touch, as when carving the lid of a bamboo cup. `menree vt. talk down to someone, as though one were superior to them. vi. rumtum family. See: namə-rumtum ‘family’. n. n. clan. See: rumtum n. məəree hinam inferior. to feel rumtum-alii `rumdak ‘family’; alii ‘clan’. Var: `yumdak (P). -ree Perfective sequential 2 vs:asp. suffix. Gram: usually found on every night. `rumdak `bə `opoo tɨɨyoo `kaa. ‘Don’t drink liquor every night.’ rumnam vi. shout; yell, as when trying to flush out an animal. Usage: Not generally used to describe an act of communication. `nun attɨr ə `ruml int `kaa, ŋo `hodum `əm `hog `toraa `laa `duurə. ‘You guys go ahead shouting as a group; I’ll sit and wait here for the barking deer.’ vt. barricade; form a piled barrier (“`arum”), as to prevent an area from being eroded. `hog `arum goda `rumt `kee; əmmaa `rəm, `hog `cin jagrə. ‘Pile up a barrier here; otherwise, it will erode this area too.’ adj. miserly. `rumnam `duut reeku `laa, `ŋun `tokkə inrəp kunam əna. ‘After staying for six days...we started heading back home.’ dot `reela `den, ard `bə kegee `kaa! ‘After you eat that instead (of what you had requested), go ahead and run away smartly.’ `bɨɨ tatɨk `əm `pətup `lo `lɨgl at `reela `yupt ku. ‘Having put the frog inside the bottle, he went to sleep.’ non-final verbs in “-`laa” or “`əm” which are also inflected for Perfective aspect in “-to”. Precedes optional Completive suffix “-ku”. Indicates that the marked event represents the boundary of one episode, and that another, related episode is about to be mentioned, i.e. ‘after x was over with, the related event y then took place’. In this function, requires that the subject of the marked clause (which may be any person) is the same as the subject of the following clause. look go rumram `ruhi -ree `ree vi. be stealthy, as when stalking an enemy or animal. See: `runam ‘sneak’. pcl. Polar (yes/no) question marker. Gram: follows a noun or inferior; feel inferior; 1 vs:adv. regard someone as though they were inferior. Gram: Manner suffix indicating, of an intransitive verb, that the subject has an inferior feeling; of a transitive verb, indicates that the object is being viewed or treated as though inferior. verb; indicates that the speaker has no idea if the information contained in the sentence is true or not. Creates a question which should take a simple answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’. no məəmaa `duuree? ‘Do you want/like it?’ `nunuk agom ə `jupkaa `ree `jubmaa `ree? ‘Was your point (of dispute) agreed on or not?’ no `Galoo `ə `ree? ‘Are 274 `reeɲup `rem you (a) Galo?’ `bol `ree int `rəkko? ‘Is is down there that you’re going?’ body of an object, but instead pass through an edge or corner with a continuing motion. Gram: Result suffix usually occurring on verbs of motion or transfer. `reeɲup `reenam `reenə reebo reelii -rek nce. See: `tacup-`reeɲup ‘variety of fly’. vt. lay out or set up an `cɨɨrek turek entire structure, such as a floor. n. mare; female horse. n. stallion; male horse. n. breeding horse; horse used vt. slap, glancing off slightly (just touching with fingertips). vt. glance (one’s foot) off something when kicking. `naarek to establish a breeding line. vs:adv. sharp (result). Gram: 1 Result suffix indicating that something is sharpened as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. sharpen such as a blade. vt. vt. just miss or glance off, when throwing. ŋo Tamik `ne `ɨlɨɨ `ə `naarek to. ‘I threw the stone past Tamik (just missing him).’ vt. push, just barely touching or glancing off one’s target. n. large banyan tree. 1 `nɨɨrek `rettə `pɨrek something, make `morek -rek 2 sharpen; something sharp. vs:adv. rennam (2) ‘sharp’. vi. be sharp. See: arek usurp; overpower; supplant. Gram: Manner suffix indicated that the action indicated by the verb is realized by way of someone usurping, overpowering or supplanting someone else, or by doing that which was properly someone else’s to do. rennam (2) 2 Var: yennam (2) (P). vt. 1 • roll something, as a cigarette. `hooken go rejji `lakee. ‘Roll me one (cigarette).’ 2 • flatten something by rolling it, coorek tɨgrek vt. steal something from someone. vt. snatch; jerk away from someone. vt. pull something away vt. as chapatti from dough, or by pressing it down with one’s foot. rennam (2) reppuu `rem 3 vt. shave or scrape a voluminous thing, such as a potato. `purek `laarek from someone. snatch; take something away from someone. `ŋok `yaraa `əm `laarek `maab `kaa! ‘Don’t take away my things!’ vt. shave or scrape the skin off of something voluminous, such as a potato. Var: `yem (P). pcl. Assumptive question marker. Gram: Follows an noun or interrogative sentence containing a question word. Indicates the speaker’s belief that the addressee knows the identity of the referent being queried. When marking a noun other than an -`rek vs:adv. glance off; of a strike or cut, not land solidly in the main 275 `remmin `roo-kognam interrogative pronoun, has the function of checking the speaker’s hypothesis that the mentioned noun is indeed the one meant or the one in question. `ijjaa `rem? ‘You mean slept. `rəroo-`duuroo -roo mementos; artefacts of one’s early life. n. now?’ `yas `hɨɨlɨk `ko `hibuu `lo, ŋoii laanam `əm `yəə `rem `dodee `na? ‘Who’s going to eat any fish caught in a pissed-in river?” `əg `yoo `ə `rem? ‘What’s this?’ vs:adv. spacious; roomy. Gram: Result suffix indicating that a space is opened up or enlarged as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `bɨɨ bədaa `əm paroo rə. ‘He will cut a path first (and we will follow).’ `remmin remmo n. variety of banyan tree. -`roo nce. cause to roll. Usage: Usually occurs in compound. See: `apə-remmo ‘sinew’. vs:adv. 1 • complete; finish. kan `moroo toku `laa, bul `indeek kaaku maa. ‘After it got dark, they had no place where they could go.’ 2 • finish `rellum -`ro 1 n. banyan grove; grove of banyan trees. spy; do an action secretly, especially when looking or listening through the hole of a wall or screen. Gram: Manner suffix vs:adv. something off; completely affect something, leaving no residue. Gram: Result suffix indicating full completion of the action indicated by the verb, or full or complete affecting of an object. usually occurring on verbs of perception, such as listening or hearing. `kaaro `taro `ro- Var: `kaar. vt. spy on someone by looking at them; peep. Var: `tar. vt. spy on someone; listen hidingly or in secret. vs:nzr. time of completion; point of completion; afterward. Gram: Nominalizing suffix deriving a noun with the basic meaning of a time at which V is, was or will be completed. `saa `tɨɨroo `kookɨɨ `lo ŋo `ɲuŋmoo hurə. ‘After (I) finish drinking (my) tea, I’ll wash my face.’ `moroo clfqr. Classifier for bundles of sticks or poles, such as bamboo (40 by standard). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. vt. wipe something out; get rid of something completely. `ŋun `ədɨɨ `na `hot-`hoɲo `moroo `laa, `moŋam kaa. ‘We wiped out lots of wild animals, we did.’ n. chick; baby chicken. `roŋo ‘two hundred (sticks)’. See: `aro ‘bundle’. `roo -`roo vs:nzr. original place of. Gram: Nominalizer deriving a noun with the basic meaning of an original location at which V was done. 2 `roo-kognam `yubroo n. the first place one v. of a shaman, to perform chick divination; divine using a baby chicken, by cutting it open and chanting over it to determine the future or to determine what course of events 276 `roo-jeɲjen `roten should be taken. See: `roo ‘chick’; kognam ‘open’. `roo-jeɲjen `rooɲo roodoo roodə n. tonsils; fleshy pendulum visible at the back of the mouth. See: `roo ‘chick’. n. nce. nce. See: `taji-`rooɲo See: `yɨɨpə-roodoo ‘fly 1 • plane; of an antique variety, with rattles at the hilt, used by shamans during rituals. roksin fowl. n. chicken liver; liver of a n. variety of distilled liquor, roksɨɨ ‘algae’. variety’. airplane; fixed-wing aircraft. 2 • aircraft, in general. clear, with neutral spirits added and said to be very harmful to health. Source: Nepali. `rogɨɨ rogjɨr Var: `yogɨɨ (P). n. handle of a bladed instrument, such as a dao (machete) or knife. n. female adolescent chicken. n. roonam Var: buunam (P). vt. scold. no `ŋom `rooduu. ‘You’re scolding me.’ `bul roomii `hiduu. ‘They’re quarrelling amongst one another.’ `rogdin `rogdɨr `rognə `rogbar `rogmə roglii rocɨɨ Var: `yogdin (P). Syn: `rogdɨr. iron. n. iron. Syn: `rogdin. n. hen; female chicken. Var: yogbar/yoktam (P). n. Var: `rogmo. n. rooyek `roorii `roorə `roə n. variety of single-leafed n:time. late afternoon, from n. variety of very fast snake. palm or cane. about 2:00 PM until dark. flat side of a blade. chicken feather. n. breeding fowl, cock or hen; fowl used to establish a breeding line. n:time. day after tomorrow. Var: yokkee (P). n. brass `rokkee anklet. `rokko Var: yokko (P). n. antique dao (machete); old dao. n:time. morning; Usage: (P). See: komci n. variety of abundant cane, with many sharp thorns. Var: yojam ~ kojam (P). n. tongue-based speech impediment, possibly a lisp or slur. v. lisp; speak with a slur or lisp. rojam `rokkom `rokcik knife. dawn. ‘early morning (L)’; aro ‘morning (L). Var: occik (L); yoksik (P). n. n. chicken skin. n. rooster; male chicken. rojam-royam `rokpin `rokpo `rokpəə `roksi n. paddy which failed to properly winnow, which is used for chicken feed. Var: `yoksi (P). n. long sword Var: yojam-yoyam ~ kojam-koyam (P). v:expr. slur one’s speech, as when heavily drunk. rojam-royam `la `menduu. ‘(He’s) slurring his words (because he’s drunk).’ Var: `rotten (P). n:time. four `roten days hence; four days from the 277 `rodak -`rɨɨ time of speaking. `rompak `romlɨk `rodak rodo n. every morning. See: paacoo-rodo ‘rodent incinerate something to get rid of it. vt. nce. variety’. ronam Var: yonam (P). v:c.arg. stick out the tongue, not necessarily licking or in flat shape. Gram: vt. set fire to something, as a house. `nok namm `əm ŋo `romlɨk jirə! ‘I’m going to set fire to your house on you!’ romlee Generally occurs with associated noun “aro” ‘tongue’ ar-ronam ‘to stick out the tongue’. rokaa `ronam vt. taste by sticking the tongue into something. See: aro ‘tongue’. Var: runam (P). vi. sneak; move stealthily or hidingly, as when stalking an animal or when evading a predator or enemy. `ar go `rola, `kaar nammə yu. ‘One morning he sneeeeaked up and peeped in, so it’s said.’ vt. stalk, as an animal. `hodum n. spell; evil curse. Generally malevolent power exerted over another entity, by either a spirit or a human, whether intentionally (as when cursing or attempting to manipulate someone) or unintentionally (as when thinking about an absent person intently, thereby causing them to fall ill). n:time. three days hence; three days from the time of speaking. `rorə `rɨii-`docaa `əm `rot `kee. ‘Stalk the tiger.’ robuu n. storage tube made from a section of bamboo, used for storing a stirring stick when not in use. Var: ii-isaa (P). n. conduct; manner; way of conducting oneself. Tabom `gə `rɨii-`docaa `əm `kaalɨɨ maa. ‘I can’t bear Tabom’s way of conducting himself.’ vs:adv. 1 • uniform; alike to; similar to; like. Gram: Manner -`rɨɨ robə mɨɨsɨr (P). n. vertical roofing beam, running at a roughly thirty degree vertical angle from the crest of the roof to the roof border in a parallel series, creating the vertical aspect of the roofing frame to which fan palm leaves are attached to form a roof. n. cliff edge; edge of a cliff. vt. Var: yobə (P); suffix indicating that an action is carried out like, alike to or similar to some other action or some other actor’s performance of the action. `inrɨɨ ‘walk like someone else’. menrɨɨ ‘speak like someone else’. kɨrɨɨ hinam ‘to compare among things’. 2 • uniformly. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is uniformly affected. təə, ŋok apiə `robəə romnam incinerate; burn completely; let or allow something to burn away completely. ŋo kitapəm romkaa. ‘I burned the book (by tossing it into the fire).’ mendu eena, nok moi...tagrɨɨla həmbə homan doobə mogərəmmə...bihu hooko yu kə. ‘Up there...My kid said, right, to your aunt...they flattened it out and made it all smooth like this 278 rɨɨ- gogrɨk (to make) a dancing area for Bihu, so she said.’ rɨɨ- Classifier for staffs, including banana staffs and banana trees, as well as other trees. Gram: Root form, used for clfr. combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. Tone is irregularly different from word form. stunned fish towards a “`bogdum” dam head, into which they enter and cannot escape. Fish are then collected from that point. -rɨɨ...-ɲo Var: -yɨɨ...-ɲo (P). vs:advs. brief; fleeting. Gram: Split manner `hɨɨn `arɨɨ rɨɨpii ‘four trees’. `rɨɨtə ‘(grown) large, of a staff-like thing (such as bamboo)’. rɨɨyaa ‘(grown) small, of a staff-like thing (such as bamboo)’. See: `arɨɨ ‘staff’. suffix indicating that the action mentioned by the verb occurs briefly or in a fleeting manner. kaarɨɨ `taɲ `la kaakaa nammə, `mooko rɨk-`rɨs `kaapaa maa. ‘Having given the area a once-over, it looks as though there’s no work to do in the fields.’ -rɨɨ numr. ten. Gram: root form, used for combining with classifier roots to form enumerative classifier expressions barrɨɨ ‘ten rupees’. See: ɨrɨɨ ‘ten’. n. gentle sloping decline becoming a plain or plateau. adj. flat, of a terrain. rɨk- Quantity classifier for 1 clfqr. bundles (of sticks, e.g.). Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: arɨk ‘bundle’. rɨɨjoo rɨk- rɨɨnam 1 Var: yɨɨnam (P). vt. support someone; back someone; come in on someone’s side or in their favour. 2 vt. tie up or tie down an animal, as with rope or chain; corral an animal. 2 clfr. Classifier for fields. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: rɨkə ‘field’. -rɨk vs:val. meet; respond; answer; retaliate; face. Gram: Applicative suffix indicating that the object is met by the subject as a result of, or in the process of, the action indicated by the verb. Also used to describe cases of answering, responding to, or retaliating against someone else’s actions, or facing someone or something else in posture or position. rɨɨnam rɨɨyaa rɨɨyɨr adj. shallow. Syn: uuyaa. Var: ayɨr ~ `buuyɨr (P). n. bank of a river; shore of a lake. n. variety of fish trap, a rɨɨlen inrɨk combination of poisoning techniques together with a “`hibok” river diversion fish trapping system. Fish poison is first prepared upstream from a “mukaa” poisoning platform, and released into the water. A “pəji-pəmə” temporary river diversion then guides the vt. meet someone along the way. `bul inrɨk `hiduu ku. ‘They met (one another) along the way.’ vt. kaarɨk hinam encounter. meet; gogrɨk vt. reply. gokkaa nammə, ɲii gogrɨk maa. ‘Having called out, they didn’t find anyone.’ 279 turɨk `rɨgnə turɨk kick someone in retaliation, as when they have already kicked you and you are matching. vt. vi. stand up next dagrɨk hinam initiative. hobb `əm `bɨm ar `motok; `bɨɨ `rɨkok-`meŋkok `yaaduu. ‘Have him render the mithun; he’s more capable in these matters.’ to one another, as when comparing height or sizing up for a fight. rɨkə n. field; agricultural field of any variety. rɨkə-`rɨnam ‘farming’. `menrɨk answer. `menrɨk `lɨɨmaa `duu. ‘I don’t want to have to speak to him (so I’m ignoring him).’ vt. vt. do something as a `rɨkkoo rɨgaa n. lower mountain field. side of a `morɨk n. second use field; field being cultivated for the second time. n. conclusion; last activity in welcoming gesture, as to reciprocate for a visit. `poonuu `morɨk rə. ‘(We) will perform a “`poonuu” (dance) to welcome him.’ `rɨgaa `rɨgii rɨgee `rɨgo sequence; last day or stage of a ceremony. n. lower boundary or side of a n. Rɨkii name. Riki, brother of Abo mountain field. reciprocal labour. rɨgee-eenam ‘perform reciprocal labour’. Var: `yɨgo (P). n:kin. brother-in-law. Usage: used by a married male to refer to the brother of his wife. n. upper mountain field. Tani and (together with Tanii) descendant of “Tuurɨ”. Otherwise known as “Takii”, he features as the legendary rival of Abo Tani in traditional mythology and folklore, and is traditionally believed to be the progenitor of demons, evil spirits, and some or all animals. See: Takii. rɨgdum rɨgnam side of a `Rɨkee 1 name. name of a legendary Lare Galo ancestor of the tenth generation from Abo Tani. Rɨkee is recognized as the principal progenitor of the very numerous Rɨbaa clan of Galo, although it is not known to most Rɨbaa why or how they came to take the title Rɨbaa rather than Rɨkee. Var: mokak (P). vt. wash clothing; wash fabric or cloth. `ejj `əm rɨkt yoo! ‘Wash the clothes why don’t you! v:c.arg. be cold, of weather. Usage: rare; usu. occurs with `rɨgnam `rɨkee associated adjective “`arɨk” ‘cold’. `arɨk `rɨgnam ‘to be cold’. See: `arɨk ‘cold’. 2 nce. See: `rɨmur-`rɨkee ‘mess; disaster’. `rɨgnə `rɨkok-`meŋkok ~ `igok-`meŋgok (P). vi. take the Var: `ikok-`meŋkok Var: `yɨgnə (P). n:kin. sister-in-law. Usage: used by a married male to refer to the sister of his wife. 280 `rɨgbin `rɨmur-`rɨkee `rɨgbin field. n. cleared field; weeded `rɨgbin-`taakə Var: `rɨgbin-pəttaa (P). n. variety `bə `kaaduu `bə `rɨduu. ‘I mean, it looked as though people were really living there.’ 2 • be all right; be passable; do, in of bird, preferring to live in open clearings. See: `rɨgbin ‘cleared field’; `taakə ‘dove’. rɨgmam n. virgin field; just-burned field, ready for cultivation for the first time as the initial stage in a “tumpə-rɨkə” fallowing system. `rɨgməə `rɨgraa rɨgrom n. cultivated area; an area n. field interior; area within the sense ‘it will/will not do’. Generally used in the negative, i.e. ‘x will not do’, in the sense that x is somehow faulty or otherwise unsuitable. hoo ə `rɨmaa. ‘The cow’s not healthy/not doing well.’ tahum `kuduu `bə `rɨd `ree? ‘Can you fish for crawdads (up there)?’ 3 • happen (that); be the case where only fields are found. the boundaries of a field. n. blackened debris which remains following the burning of a mountain field, which must be collected and put to the side. rɨgrom-`paanam ‘to collect field debris post-burning’. n. 1 • way, path or road leading to a field. (that). `yoo `rɨkaa ku? ‘What happened?’ ŋo `bɨəm `meŋkam `duub `rɨkaa. ‘I had to push him (to do grammatical elicitation).’ (lit. ~ ‘It happened that I had to push him’). `rɨnam-`gomcɨr Var: `inam-`gomsɨr (P). n. verb. Gram: Type of word (part-of-speech) basically denoting events or states See: `rɨnam ‘do’; `gomcɨr ‘word’. rɨglam 2 • work party; group of people Rɨnii either coming from or going to work in the fields. Usage: (P). Rɨnaa `rɨnam name. Rɨnaa clan, sister to the Rɨbaa, both descended Koorɨ, son of Karkoo. Var: inam (P). vt. from 1 • do; perform an activity. `bɨɨ `yoo `rɨduu `naadɨɨ? ‘What are you doing?’ 2 • work; name. Rɨnii, birth name of Abo Tani, descendant of Tuurɨ and brother and rival of Rɨkii or Takii. While Rɨkii was the progenitor of demons, evil spirits and at least some types of animals, Rɨnii became the progenitor of humankind (particularly, of the Tanii tribespeople). name. name of a clan of Lare Var: imur (P). n. mistake. Rɨbaa `rɨmur n. especially, work fields. rɨkə-`rɨnam ‘farming’. in Galo. vie. 1 • be as (though); act as (though one were); be in a certain way. Gram: Takes a subject and an obligatorily Dative-marked complement ‘as (though)’ which the subject is construed as being like or becoming. ɲii `duubəə `ko `garɨɨ `rɨmur-`rɨkee Var: imur-ikee (P). mess; disaster; balls-up; pear-shaped; a situation which has gone all wrong or fallen apart due to mounting misfortunes. 281 `rɨmə `rəənam vi. be or become fouled up or screwed up, of a situation. `ok `kookɨɨ `lo `rɨmur-`rɨkee gəkaa ku. ‘After that, I managed to screw everything up (due to my actions).’ See: `rɨmur ‘mistake’. `morə -rə Var: `mor. vt. make a sign or a symbol on something. vs:asp. will; would. Gram: Irrealis modality suffix. Much like a future marker, but not necessarily locating the marked event/state in future time. Rather, gives a sense that the event/state has not yet begun, but is certain to begin. Can also have a kind of past subjunctive value ‘I was to...(but x happened, preventing me)’. `rɨmə Var: `nakpin (P). n. small bamboo stick split multiple times at one end up to one-half or less length, forming decoratively lilting, flower-like tassles. Used as a common decorative item on traditional altars and other artifacts. adj. cool; nice and cool; brisk, rɨyɨɨ to the touch, of the weather, or of one’s body’s internal feeling. rɨyɨɨ ə! ‘It’s chilly (out)!’ `rɨlii Var: ilii ~ ramlii (P). n. plague; `paarə `pə. ‘We’ll probably find some.’ bədaa lo `nenrə...gaarii ə tupkaa. ‘He was *just* stepping onto the road when a car hit him.’ `og gogrə `ogo, pup go `dəblen to. ‘Right when he was calling, an owl flew out.’ `korum boolo, `nom `cin parə. ‘In the old times, we’d have killed you too!’ epidemic; spreading, communicable disease. -`rə `rɨlii-boŋo in traditional mythology, a variety of unseen force, invoked by whittling strips off the end of a piece of bamboo and keeping them aside. n. nce. See: dumci-rɨlek ‘variety vs:adv. vs:nzr. to a boundary. Gram: Nominalizing suffix deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘activity done to a limit or boundary, not crossing it’. Var: `kaar. n. limit watching something, television. `kaarə `dorə of as rɨlek -`rə of ritual object’. mark; brand; make a sign on something, especially to mark one’s ownership over it. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in a mark or symbol on the object to express the subject’s ownership over it. Var: -`r. Var: `dor. n. limit of eating something. `dor go dot `kee. ‘Don’t eat more than the limit; eat the right amount.’ `rəəŋam-rəəŋam adj. slow; nice; gradual. Usage: (P). See: aləə-aləə ‘slow; nice; gradual’; `rəŋam ‘calm’. `rəətə `tirrə `parə Var: `tirr. vt. make a mark, as with a pen when circling something important. Var: par. vt. make a cut to n. variety of nettle, stem up to about 3” diameter, may be taller than a person, leaves similar to “`gɨɨlɨɨ”. vi. 1 • keel; sway. `rəəl `induu. ‘(He’s) staggering (because he’s drunk).’ `rəənam mark something, as to assert ownership of a tree. 2 • swing; be suspended. 282 rəənə -rəp taloo-`baaboo `rəəduu. swing is swinging.’ something. ‘The ‘It’s too bloody fast.’ vt. swing something; suspend rəccə Var: əccə. adj. quite fast; really speedy. Usage: emphatic form of rəənə nce. See: `yapəə-rəənə ‘grasshopper variety’. n. variety of small animal “rəcəə” ‘fast’. `bɨɨ `rəccəb `jugduu. ‘He runs very quickly.’ See: rəcəə ‘fast’. `rəəpəə `rəɲak adj. 1 • tender, as meat; soft trap, especially for birds, consisting of a frame with tripped spring action noose. to the touch. worn-out, of a body. aɨɨ ə `rəɲak `duuku. ‘I’m exhausted/wasted.’ 2 • exhausted; rəəbuu rəəbə n. horn; rack of horns. n. large hunk of meat (poss. rəɲək an entire flank) from a butchered animal, to be distributed to other houses in the village. n. variety of wild tapioca, similar to “iŋin”. rənam Var: yenam (P). vi. live; 1 exist; be (in existence). Gram: Existential verb taking an obligatorily animate (living) subject. In the simple sense denotes plain animate existence, although as other noun phrases are added can have more specific senses such as ‘be (at/in)’ or ‘spend time (at/in)’. Often occurs with a locative-marked (oblique) Location argument, as ‘live (in some place)’. ayaa `hilaa `rəlaa -`rək vs:adv. make a symbol, as when carving something in a permanent fashion. Gram: Result verb suffix indicating that a permanent symbol is made on an object as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `morək `rəkcuu `rəkpin `rəgnam truck. vt. make a symbol on something. Var: `yeksuu (P). n. piglet; Var: `yekpin (P). n. pigskin; vt. 1 • roll something, as `ju. ‘Let’s another.’ live loving one baby pig. skin of a pig. chapatti dough; grind. 2 • run over someone, of a car or 3 • gnaw, as on a bone. `rəken rəgə adj. nice to live (in); comfortable. vt. look after someone; take care of their basic needs. adj. unpleasant; not nice `rənek rənam 2 to live (in). vt. buy; purchase. rəglii breeding pig; pig used to establish a line. n. n. calm; peace. Var: yeglii (P). rənam-`duunam Var: yenam-duunam (P). n. way of living; lifestyle. `rəŋam adj. -rəp calm; subdued; slow; controlled (not helter-skelter). rəcəə Var: rəccə; əccə; rəsəə (P). adj. fast; speedy. rəcəə cəəben jaaduu. vs:adv. 1 • upright; up (result). Gram: Directional suffix with the sense ‘up’ or ‘upright’. On intransitive verbs of position and experience, indicates transfer of the subject to an upright position by way 283 gərəp rəlii-cənam of the action indicated by the verb. On transitive verbs of transfer and manipulation, indicates transfer of the object in an upward direction, possibly to the standing height of a human being. 2 • start; initiate. Gram: Temporal suffix indicating initiation of the activity indicated by the verb. Occurs on verbs other than of position, transfer and manipulation. parəp ‘Upon hearing the knock, they were shocked upright.’ rəbap n. pomelo. Source: Assamese. `rəmap adj. soft to the touch; soft in texture, like wool. See: `rəɲak ‘tender’. `rəmo `paala toku `kaa. ‘Start the killing.’ adjs:rcom. start to become; get. Gram: Adjectival root-combining inceptive suffix indicating that the property indicated is just beginning or just getting to be the case. Var: `rəm `paala; yemopaala (P). adv. while; as; during; at the same time. rɨkə `rɨla `rəm `paala, `ŋom `hɨɨdaa `ə nɨkkaa. ‘While I was working in the fields, I was gouged by a stick.’ vi. cast one’s eyes to the rəmnam `ɲuŋmoo yalɨɨ lɨɨrəp `duuku. ‘His face is getting/becoming red.’ vs:nzr. 1 • time of beginning of. Gram: Nominalizing suffix with the basic meaning of a time at which some action begins. `aglo `pool side; look askance; look to the side, as with an evil intention. ŋo aɲɨk ə `rəmduu. ‘I’m shifting/glancing my eyes to the side.’ rəyaa rəyɨɨ lorəp `lokkə...‘From beginning of January...’ the adj. uncomfortable. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: jɨɨjɨɨ-rəyaa ‘damp’. n. lifestyle; way of living. Var: `yero-`duuro (P). 2 • time; iteration. Gram: Nominalizing suffix deriving a noun with the basic meaning ‘time’ or ‘iteration’ as in ‘seven times’ `rɨrəp `rəro-`duuro `dɨkɨɨ `lo...‘every time...’ ŋo inrəp `kan go into. ‘I’ve been (there) seven times.’ n. artefacts and memories of one’s hometown and early life; how things used to be in the old days. See: `rənam-`duunam ‘lifestyle’; -`ro ‘origin’. gərəp vi. get up, as out of bed in the morning. gərəp `tokaa! ‘Get up!’ vt. start to talk. rəlii-cənam `menrəp `laarəp vt. pick something up. `bɨɨ “`yoogo `bəree” `əmlaa `laarəp `kaa. ‘Thinking “what is this,” he picked it up.’ vi. of an eagle or bird with similar abilities, hover over the ground by flapping the wings for some time. dookoo rəlii-cənam ‘of a hawk, hover by flapping’. See: cənam ‘hover by flapping’. `lomrəp vi. startle; get shocked upright. cɨɨn cɨɨbə namm `əm `tatom `bul `lomrəp `duu. 284 -`la -`laa L -`la Var: -`l. vs:nf. -ly; -ing. Gram: Non-final predicate suffix to an uninflected predicate root/stem occurring as the initial element of a complex predicate. Predicates linked in “-`la” are understood as coding analytically distinct events which may be understood as temporally sequential (but generally quite close) *or* temporally simultaneous (according to predicate semantics, pragmatic expectations, and/or other factors which remain to be understood. Seemingly a reduction of Non-final clause-marking suffix “-`laa”. `jəəl meɲyoo `ke! ‘Don’t - l `laa 2 Var: -l. pcl. 1 • Content (“WH-”) question marker. Gram: Marks a sentence containing a question word such as “`yəə”, “`yoo”, or “`yombə” as a clear question about which the speaker has no idea and believes the listener can supply an answer. Usage: When following some types of question word, may be reduced to “l”. `yoo `rɨkaa `laa? ‘What happened?’ no `yoo `rɨduu `naala? ‘What are you up to?’ `hɨgɨ `yəkkə `laa? ‘Whose is this?’ `əgə `yoo `ə `laa? ‘What is that?’ you’ll see. Gram: Assurance particle marking information as something that the speaker is confident to be the case, and which the speaker believes the listener does not think to be the case, and wishes to assure the listener that it *is* in fact the case. “`yoog `bəree” `əmlaa lomrə, gərəp `rəl `pəlaa. ‘She’ll be shocked, thinking “what on earth is this,” and so she’ll get up, you’ll see.’ telefun aar `lapə `laa. ‘The telephone will ring, you’ll see.’ yell at me (don’t speak to me in a yelling way)!’ -`laa Var: -`la (reduction in third syllabic position). vs:adv. can; able to; have the ability to. Gram: Modal suffix indicating the subject’s ablility to bring about the action indicated by the verb. Although technically a suffix, may head a grammatical word in responses to questions only. ŋo `dolaa kumaa. 1 ‘I can’t eat (any more).’ `tol `cin `caalaa kumaa! ‘We can’t even go up there anymore!’ A: no `əpak `larəi? B: um, `larə. A: ‘Will you be able to quit (smoking)?’ B: Yes, I will. -`laa Var: -`la (reduction in third syllable position). vs:mod. vs:mod. 2 `laa 1 cnj. and. Gram: Noun coordinator linking two nouns with the same function. `Galoo agom ə `laa Imperative suffix, speaker directed. Gram: Occurs in a transitive or ditransitive verb only, and usually indicates a relatively polite request or command that the addressee should do perform some action which will benefit, or which will otherwise be directed at, the speaker. Commonly followed by Inclusive particle “`juu”, forming the overall sense ‘let’s (do x)’. `meɲji Ɲiɲoo agom ə ləyyɨɨ `hiduu. ‘Galo is similar to Minyong (language).’ Tamik `laa Tamo `buɲi `moodii `caakaa. ‘Tamik and Tamo went up the mountain.’ `lakee! ‘Tell them for me!’ acin 285 -`laa -`laacin `dolaa `jukee. ‘Let’s eat, shall we?’ `occik `əm jiji `lakee! ‘Give the knife to him for me!’ 2 • vs:mod. Soft, light or semi-deferential sense of the speaker-directed imperative suffix. May occur on its own, usually followed by a declarative particle of some kind such as “`na” or “ne”, or may follow an imperative in “-to”. al `bə `inlaa `na! ‘Go safely!’ ~ ‘Be careful on the way!’ (with a sense of concern for the addressee and his/her safety). `iji `n `tɨɨlaa `ne. ‘(No), have some (rice beer) after a little while (instead of now, as you’re intimating).’ acin dot `lakee. ‘You should really eat (you don’t know where your next meal will come from).’ al `bə int `laa `dei! ‘Go safely, y’hear?’ following verbs, but may also occur on focused nouns. Indicates a speaker attitude of surprise, astonishment, alarm or sometimes disapproval at the unusual nature of something to which he or she is reacting. no `yaaruu `lakaa tɨɨben `yaana! ‘You’re the one who’s a chain-smoker!’ `əgə `lakaa. ‘That’s enough of this.’ `omor golaa `ka! ‘It’s just like the old days (when you used to do this kind of thing, which you don’t do for me anymore)!’ doodakee `lakaa. My shawl was there just a minute ago (why are you now telling me that you can’t find it)?’ ərək ə `ajen `gə `yass `əm `tɨɨduu `lakaa! ‘(The pig is) drinking his friend’s urine, of all things (how disgusting)!’ `igin gəmaa `lakaa! ‘You aren’t carrying a basket (as you are supposed to be)!’ -`laa vs:nf. and. Gram: Non-final 3 clause marking suffix to an inflected or, more often, uninflected predicate root/stem. Indicates that the marked clause is not the final clause in a series of clauses which generally constitute a discourse episode. `Laaku name. name of a spirit. `Laaku-Jɨgloo -`laacin name. name of a spirit featuring in some traditional Galo legends. Var: -`lacin; -`lasin (P). vs:nf. `ɲobuu `ahoo `laa, `rɨɨtuu `laa, `aduu `bə. ‘And, its tail...is long, such that it can be used to tie something up.’ acin dot `laa, ŋo `iir ku. ‘After I eat, I’ll go back (down).’ (lit. After I ate, I’ll go back down.). although; however; also; as well; despite; yet; even. Gram: Concessive coordinating verb suffix indicating that ‘although’ or ‘despite’ the fact that the marked information is the case, something else (potentially contrasting) is true also, or as well. When coordinating adjectives, has a sense closer to ‘yet’, as ‘tall yet fat’. Similar to “-`dakkom”, although may have less of a directly contrasting feel. `bɨɨ `dortə maa -laa 4 vs:adv. jokingly; as a joke. Gram: Manner verb suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is brought about in a joking manner by the subject. `menlaa nammə `na. ‘It was just a joke, now.’ `laaka Var: `laka. pcl. of all things; for heaven’s sake; for goodness’ Gram: sake; unexpectedly. particle usually found Mirative `lacin, `acci `bə `ŋamduu. ‘Although he’s not a big one, he bites very hard.’ no `ŋom “maa maa” `əmlaa `cin `nok `aapuk cərəə gollo `məəruu rə. ‘At least you must have some feeling for me in the corner of your heart 286 `laadə lakcəə-`tɨtə (lit. ‘Although you say “no, no,” you must think about me in the corner of your heart).’ `ahoo `lacin `kaanek `na ɲii `əcin `kaaduu. ‘(No), there are tall people who are also ugly (not all are good-looking).’ pcl. even. Gram: Sense of the coordinating suffix marking nouns which are ‘even’ participating in the event/state indicated by the verb, despite that they may be expected not to. `bɨɨ `yool `lacin `duuduu. announce the prospective arrival of a new bride into a house. vt. perform a “`laayap” ceremony for someone. -lak vs:adv. miss a target. Gram: Result verb suffix to a verb of transfer or affect indicating that the subject misses an object in the course of an action. vt. miss a shot; miss a target one is shooting at. vt. miss a target one is `ablak ‘He’ll sit anywhere/in any old place (i.e., he lacks standards).’ naalak -`lak throwing at. vs:adv. able to; capable of; possible to. Gram: Modal suffix indicating possibility, in that the subject is not in any way prevented or constrained due to lack of capacity or other internal obstacles. In the negative, has the sense ‘unable to’ or ‘impossible’. `an-ab nam lo `cin `laadə Var: `laad; `laadɨ. n. harvest time. `am `laad `əku! ‘It’s harvest time!’ `laanam vt. 1 • take; cost (in the sense of money taken by a vendor); earn (money). `laat `kee! ‘Take it!’ mee go `laadak `lakaa! ‘It’s taking tons of (time)!’ a woman; take in marriage, of a man to a woman. ɲimə-`laanam ‘to marry a woman’. Ab Tanii `kohuk `əm ɲim-`laato. ‘Abo Tani took the dried up leaf as a wife.’ 3 • possess, of an evil spirit to a 2 • marry `aakur `lakku maa, `ɨlɨɨ `ə `bɨəm `geelup kaaku. ‘She was unable to return to her parents’ house either; the stone had completely submerged her.’ lak kaamaa human. laabuu `laamə pod. nce. See: `dorkaa-laabuu int. perfect! Just as I needed! Exactly as I hoped for. Usage: Idiomatic expression spoken when something happens in exactly the way which suits one’s purpose or needs. Var: `laksi (P). n. left hand. ‘giant earthworm’. n. seed or pit of a jackfruit `lakci lakci-koroo `laayap n. 1 • variety of ritual performed in order confirm the continuity of a line, such as when a bride is married into the family or when a child is borne into the family. 2 • informally, n. lines of the palm; lines on the palm used for See: koroo fortune-telling. ‘channel’. Var: laksup (P). n. ring; ornament worn on the finger. Var: laksɨɨ (P). n. finger. lakcup lakcəə engagement a marriage ceremony to lakcəə-`tɨtə n. fingertip; tip of the finger. See: lakcəə ‘finger’. 287 lakcəə-`baatəə lagbaa lakcəə-`baatəə Var: laksɨɨ-teper (P). knuckle; joint on See: lakcəə ‘finger’. n. lagaa the the finger hand. hand. n. pulse. lagi `laktam palm Syn: lagbor. n. of vt. want; need. Source: Assamese. `yoo `rɨdak `kom, `opoo `əm lagi `duu...‘Whatever we do, we need rice beer.’ v:mod. have to; must; need to. Gram: Modal verb of obligation, taking a complement clause in “-`pə” `laktum `lakpee n. fist; closed-fisted hand. n. arm cramp, as from holding a teakettle for a long time. `iikaa `pə lagi `duu. ‘We’ll just have to go down and find out.’ adj. cramped or fatigued, of one’s `lagee arm. `lakpee `ə! ‘My arm’s all cramped up!’ vt. must; necessary that/for; have to. Gram: Obligative modal `lakpek lakpoo lakpə ace. arms folded. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: pakoo-`lakpek ‘arms folded’. n. arm, i.e. everything but the hand; arm thigh. See: alak ‘arm including hand’. auxiliary ‘must; necessary (that/for)’. Takes a complement clause in “-pə”. Source: Assamese. `ləpaa `pə `lagee. ‘One should be in the middle (not too much this way, not too much that).’ laggoo laggoo Var: lagyum (P). n. handful; amount able to be carried in one hand, as when counting. `ayum lakpə go ‘one handful’. n. fingernail; claw. Var: laggəə (P). adj. bow-armed, i.e. bowlegged, of the arms. laksin laksuk Var: lagbuu (P). nce. bracelet. Usage: rare or archaic; usu. found in compound. See: koopuu-laggoo ‘variety of ornament’. vt. wash hands. alak `əm laksuk `laju. ‘Let’s wash our hands.’ vs:advsr. miss (a target). Gram: Split result suffix indicating that a target is missed as a result of the action indicated by the verb. ŋo `lagdaa lagdaa vt. erect; make erect; cause to be erect. alak `əm `lagdaa `tokee! ‘Make your arm erect!’ n. forearm; straightened arm. -lak...-ak straight n. or lagdaa tɨrkaa hinam arm-wrestling. tɨlak-tɨak ə! ‘I keep missing (the potato chip bag opening which I’m groping for half-heartedly while watching TV).’ lagduu-kuurəə lagden n. elbow. vi. of the arm, to twitch. -lak...-cak vs:advsr. miss (a target). Gram: Split result suffix indicating that a target is missed as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. twitch one’s arm; cause one’s arm to twitch. `lagnə lagbaa n. thumb finger. Syn: `cəənə, `ŋom palak-pacak `mokaa. ‘I was made to miss (what I was aiming to) cut.’ cəədaa. n. arm haunch; arm thigh; portion of the arm between the 288 lagbuu `labnam elbow and shoulder. as “lapə”. ŋo `ej-`alii go `rəl `pə lagbuu lagbor armlet. See: `takaa-lagbuu ‘leather armlet (variety)’. n. palm Syn: `laktam. n. of the n. hand. right məənamə. ‘I was thinking of buying some new clothes.’ `caaruu `lapə məər `əm, `caalaa rə. ‘If they definitely want to move in (to the new house), they’ll be able to.’ vs:mod. will; plan to. Gram: Modal suffix of intention (regarding the subject’s own plans) or prediction (regarding the plans of another person). In declarative clauses with a first person singular/plural exclusive subject, indicates that the subject intends him/herself to bring about the action indicated by the verb. In declarative clauses with a third person subject, indicates a prediction that the marked information is or will be the case. In interrogative clauses with non-first person singular and/or non-exclusive dual/plural subjects, introduces a hypothetical scenario ‘will x come to pass’, or ‘shall x (be done/be the case)’. Must have a first person subject (in statements) or second person subject (in questions), unless followed by “`əmlaa” ‘saying’. ŋo `lagbək hand. Var: `lagbɨk (P). `lagmen n. 1 • gift from the hand. 2 • variety of bracelet, traditionally made of thread. n. arm hair. See: `amə ‘body n. noose of a small animal See: lagrɨɨ-lagaa ‘wrist’. n. wrist; joining point `lagmə hair’. `lagyaa trap. lagrɨɨ nce. lagrɨɨ-lagaa lajɨr on the arm of all sinews and veins. See: lagaa ‘pulse’. n. hollowing awl; traditional tool made from a joined ribbon of worked iron, with a thinner handle at one end and a broader sharpened area at the other, somewhat like the shape of a fat, two-dimensional bowling ball. Used to hollow out relatively large pieces of wood, as when making a canoe. Rare. `inl `pəlaa. ‘You’ll see, I will go.’ ŋo agg eeku baa, ihi go `huttaa `lapə. ‘I’ve gotten all hot and sweaty, I’m going to go take a bath.’ `dol `pəree? ‘Do you want a bite?’ pcl. I predict that; you’ll see. Gram: Predictive particle to a sentence with a third person subject, indicating a prediction on the speaker’s part that the mentioned information will come to pass or be the case as described. -`lapə Var: -`l pə. vs:nf. of (doing something); to (do something). Gram: Verbal complementizer of purpose/intention, deriving an irrealis purpose or intention complement which usually functions as complement to a verb of cognition or locution, most often “məənam” ‘to think’, “əmnam” ‘to tell’ or “`rɨnam” ‘to do; to happen (that)’. When immediately suffixed to a verb root, occurs as “lpə”. When following a disyllabic word, occurs `yomb al `geel `pədɨɨ? ‘How could that be good?’ `labnam vt. scrape (usually backhanded) with a blade, as to make a (usually wooden) surface smooth and free of knots or blemishes. `aatəə `labnam ‘to 289 labnam liitup-`ciŋii hack the knots off a length of bamboo’. labnam v:c.arg. flap, of a wing, such as that of a bird or insect. alap-labnm `əm `kaapaa `lamaa. ‘I cannot see the bee’s wing-flapping.’ Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “alap” ‘wing’ taŋik district of Arunachal Pradesh, with a few recently-established communities also inhabiting the tiny strip of plains area constituting the (still disputed) border with Assam. `laree particle. labnam vt. appease; conciliate, as an angered wife or insulted country. ɲimm `əm roomii hit `laa, `labduu `kunna. ‘Having argued with my wife, I’m trying to conciliate her.’ -lam vs:nzr. waypoint. Gram: Nominalizer deriving a noun with the sense ‘significant point on a way/path, through which an entity in motion will or would pass through’. Generally restricted to verbs of motion. n. entry; entryway. Var: lem (P). pcl. Dubitative Gram: Forms a polar (yes/no) question with the sense that the speaker is surprised that something should be, or should be suggested to be, the case, and is asking insistently whether it is or is not so. May further indicate that the speaker believes that the marked information should not be the case, or does not believe it to be proper. 2 aalam inlam n. path. `ŋok inlam `bə `ɨlɨɨ go `dooduu. ‘There’s a stone in my path.’ n. exit area. `muduu `laree? ‘Are you mad (to be acting like this)?!’ ŋo məədɨk `kaapaa doo `laree? ‘Do I look sad?’ acin `əm `momaa kambəə `laree? ‘Why haven’t you made the food yet?’ `hɨkɨr maad `laree? ‘Aren’t you cold?’ ŋo `Laree gommoo `laree. ‘Am I not a Lare?’ lalɨk -`lii n. shirt (of any sort); tunic. `nenlam `lamcək lampo n. part of a “bulum” or “bəlam” tree, possibly in a high-register or ceremonial sense. n. mediator. adj:mono. new. Gram: Adjective root combining with classifiers and other noun roots `nɨgjok `barlii ‘new brass plate’. namə `namlii ‘a new houses’. lii- `lammoo `laraa pcl. won’t. no gogboolo, `bɨɨ `tapaa `lammoo. “If you call, she surely won’t hear.” n. insulated back-piece. Usage: (P). See: `raraa ‘insulated clfr. Classifier for plates. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. taalii-lium ‘three plates’. n. first harvest of a new rice crop, which will not be stripped from the stalk but rather lopped off in hand-lengths, then tied in a knot and simply hung for use as next year’s planting grains. amlii-liitup ‘rice for next year’. Var: liitup-`hiŋii (P). n. liitup back-piece’. `Laree name. name of a dialect of 1 the Galo language. Lare speakers are mostly concentrated in the central-southern uplands and foothills of the West Siang liitup-`ciŋii special pestle used for 290 liinam `luuɲɨɨ pounding the first rice crop of the year, which will happen during or around the time of the Moopin festival, or sometime in April. See: liitup ‘new rice’; `ciŋii ‘pestle’. to be drunk.’ `gəlin vt. suit; fit; look good on liinam vi. fruit, of a grain-bearing plant such as rice. `ammo `liiduu ku. ‘The paddy is fruiting (i.e., it is at the stage at which the stalk has shot up from the base and small buds are visible upon it).’ someone, as clothing. no `hɨm lalɨk `hɨm `gəlin `duu. ‘That shirt suits you/you wear that shirt well.’ linnam (2) vt. propagate; retain and sow seeds; perform horticulture; further a lineage. liiluk vi. 1 • shed, of a snake’s skin. 2 • of an elderly person, at the last stages of life and on the verge of passing into the next life; be reborn or on the verge of being reborn. `liilum ace. round, as a seed. Usage: Usually occurs in compound. See: `apə-`liilum peel. the action of either removing an outer covering from a stalk or covering a stalk with an outer layer, by manipulating both objects in their entirety (i.e., without a break in the layer). Can be used to describe the skinning of a frog’s leg, the skinning of a snake, the opening or closing of an umbrella, or the covering or uncovering of a penis by the foreskin. `apin `ə `lidduu ku; uun ə al rəku `pə. ‘The skin is peeling; the wound will probably heal.’ vi. Usage: Describes vt. peel or unpeel a stalk. vi. sheathed; of a staff, covered via an outer layer, as a closed umbrella or a limp penis. ‘perfectly round’. `lijjup liihup Var: liisup (P). nce. fleas’ nest. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. talii-liihup ‘fleas nest’. n. penis which has been vt. sheath a staff. `liŋŋak littək -`lin `lippak `libbor luugoo vt. peel a fruit. permanently stretched due to overuse. Var: lɨtup (P). n. tip of a penis vt. open an umbrella. satii `əm libbor `tokee! ‘Open the umbrella!’ head. vs:adv. suit; fit; seem. Gram: Manner suffix indicating of the object that it fits or suits the subject (if the subject is an actor) or the occasion (if not); in some cases, particularly when following “-`lɨɨ”, has a sense closer to ‘seem’ `goglin dak. ‘(The n. 1 • enclosure; fenced-in area; area inside a fence. 2 • garden; fenced-in area for growing vegetables. n. fencepost. n:time. luugɨɨ `luuɲɨɨ song) suits the occasion.’ tɨɨkum `liilin `dagee. ‘You seemed likely immediately present year. next year; following year the 291 luutɨɨ lucɨr luutɨɨ luutɨr n. wild plantain grove; grove n. group of people. or stand of wild plantains. luunam v:c.arg. crowd; be a crowd of people. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun “ɲiluu” ‘crowd’ ɲiluu-luunam ‘to be a flowers bloom, when new leaves sprout, and when the “moopin” festival is held. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of April. lukə nce. See: `tumpə-lukə n. stem of a chilli pepper. ‘tomato’. crowd of people’. `lukkoo `lukcɨɨ luupaa n. 1 • blocked off pathway; Var: `luksɨɨ (P). n. bird’s eye fencing laid across an area where animals are likely to come to keep them from crossing. 2 • garden; kitchen garden. luupoo n. trunk of a “koluu” (wild plantain) tree. n. powder found on a chilli; mouse shit chilli; tiny variety of chilli pepper, extremely hot, of the variety found widely throughout Mainland Southeast Asia. Capsicum frutescens. `luumik luuyɨr `luktɨr “koluu” (wild plantain). n. edge of a riverbank; line at which a riverbed ceases and the land begins. n. interior of a fenced-in n. chilli powder; flavouring ingredient made from dry-roasted, dried and ground red chilli peppers. n. variety of strongly-flavoured drinking snack made from crushed or minced dried “ŋoruu” fish, chilli, salt, ginger, and “`iipə” dried bamboo chips, with a chewy consistency. See: `luktɨr ‘chilli powder’. `luktɨr-kaatɨr `luuraa luurap luurɨɨ -`luk area. holuu-`luuraa ‘interior of a fenced-in area’. fence gate. holuu-luurap ‘fence gate’. n. n. grove of wild plantains. Var: luuyap (P). lugo vs:adv. irritate. Gram: Result indicating that the action indicated by the verb results in the subject (of an intransitive verb) or the object (of a transitive verb) being irritated. nce. morning. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. Source: poss. Minyong (Adi). See: porok-lugo ‘cockscrow’. n. seed of a chilli pepper. `lugmə lugluk luŋee lucɨr `enluk feel frustrated submerged in difficulties. vi. or `menluk lukɨɨ adj. sensation of heat, burning or spiciness felt when eating a chilli pepper. n. heart of a banana tree. Usage: (P). See: `koŋee ‘banana vt. speak so as to frustrate one’s listeners. See: `aluk ‘frustrated’. heart’. Var: lusɨr (P). n:time. fifth moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-April to mid-May. Usage: May be used to refer to the n:time. fourth moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-March to mid-April. Traditionally identified as the time when 292 -`lup -`lee international calendar month of May. component of sacrificial altars. -`lup vs:adv. cover up; submerge. Gram: Result suffix on intransitive verbs, indicating that the subject is covered up as a result of the action indicated by the verb. On transitive stems, indicates the same of the object. vt. cover someone up by moving, as a crowd causing a person to become lost or invisible. vt. submerge; swallow up, of something swelling and growing, like lava. `ləbor `əm `goolup kaa. ‘Her heels were submerged (into the stone).’ `lum- clfqr. Classifier for clusters. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. See: `alum ‘cluster’. lumii `inlup n:time. third moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-February to mid-March. Usage: May be used to refer to the international calendar month of March. `lumnam `goolup coil something, as 1 vt. rope or string, into a ball, as when preparing to cover a loom. `nətuu `əm `lumt `kee! ‘Make a string ball!’ submerge 2 vt. something, of water. `iss `ə `ŋom `lumduu ku. ‘The water is submerging me.’ n. berry of the “bulum” `lumnam `luptuu n. helmet; variety of woven cap, used for head protection as when carrying logs or other large, heavy objects which could otherwise injure the wearer. n. four-angled spirit hat `lumsee tree. -lum...-yəə `luppii vs:advs. impure; dirty; soiled; revolting. Gram: Verb suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb instills a feeling of impurity or revulsion in the experiencer brim. Hat brim made from woven bamboo strips in four-angled weave, used as an element of sacrificial altars. `talum-`tayəə -`lee `luppee n. ritual woven bamboo hat, somewhat longer in extension than a “`luppii”. Used as an element of sacrificial altars. vt. feel revolted at what one is hearing. lubə n:time. eleventh moon cycle of the year, roughly mid-October to mid-November. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of November. n. 1 • brim of a hat; brimmed vs:adv. crazed; angered. Gram: 1 Result suffix indicating that the object becomes crazed or angered as a result of the action indicated by the verb. hottum `əm `ablee kaa. ‘I shot the bear (thereby) angering it.’ -`lee `lubər hat. 2 • ritual spirit hat formed from woven bamboo strips in six-angled weave, used as a vs:nf. Subsequential suffix. 2 Gram: Verb suffix giving the sense that another event ‘follows directly from’ the marked event. May be translated by ‘then’, ‘after that’ ‘out of’ ‘because’ or ‘so’. omee ə, `lomlee `kulaa, `hɨɨn `lokkə 293 leenam -`loo `oloo kaaku. ‘The boy was frightened and (out of fear) fell down from the tree.’ `aɲɨɨ `leelaa, kekkaa ku! ‘Out of shame she ran away!’ `əmbə `rɨllee `laa...‘Because of that having been done...’ `mɨɨk `ao go `bəəlee `kulaa, `iŋkur toku. ‘They took one of her kids, and went back.’ (whereas he previously wasn’t). In transfer verbs, indicates that the subject causes the object to be moved out. `hablen `tokee! ‘Take it out (of the fire) with tongs!’ `ikii dooluu lo `caalen `duu. ‘He arrived at Dog Village.’ `inlen `pɨlen lo vi. set out, as on a journey into the wider world. vt. produce creation, as a god. leenam vt. bind; tie up an object, as a bundle of firewood, as well as a human prisoner or slave. `all `əm `leegərə `laa `horduu `la arə. ‘I’ll tie the legs and keep them extended upward.’ vi. savage; crazed with through `leenam aggression, as of an injured bear; be wildly furious or infuriated, dangerously so. no `maaj `leen go `lakaa. ‘You’re a real savage, aren’t you.’ Var: `lo. pos. at; in; on; to; into. Gram: Locative case marker, marking nouns indicating a place where something happens, or a goal where something is moving to. May also mark time nouns or subordinate clauses as a time or event within which something happens. Tone is assigned from an adjacent tone-bearing word. luugoo lo ‘in `leelak adj. 1 • raw. 2 • fresh; not stale or rotten. 3 • not yet dry, as of clothes. -lek vs:adv. rightside up. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject (of an intransitive verb) or object (of a transitive verb) is or becomes positioned rightside-up as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vi. the enclosure’. `bojar `lo ‘at the market’. `həkkəm ɲidaa lo lagi `duu. ‘We need this sort of thing at weddings.’ kaabok `daglo...‘(At the time) when they looked down...’ `louu n. light. vi. emanate radiating, unfocused gellek tablek -`len stretched down. spread-eagled; out when lying light, as of the sun or moon; shine, in a loosely-radiating, subtle or non-intense manner. `louu-`jee `loee vi. turned rightside up, as a leaf. See: -kup ‘upside down’. n. light green, as a nearby forest. See: `louu ‘light’; `jee ‘green/blue’. adj. feeling of loss or frustration at not getting, and not being able to get, something that had been expected, had been hoped for, which was retrospectively discovered to been a possibility. vs:adv. out; away; appear (result). Gram: Directional or result suffix usually occurring on motion or transfer verbs. On motion verbs, usually indicates that the subject moves out of a contained space, home or place of origin, or with the result that the subject appears or becomes visible to the wider world -`loo down; 1 vs:adv. Gram: Directional downward. suffix; on 294 `oloo loobak intransitive verbs other than of motion, indicates a location downward of a spatial reference point at which the predicated event takes place. On verbs of motion, indicates a goal downward of a spatial reference point reached by the subject as a result of motion. On transitive verbs of transfer, indicates a goal to which the object is transferred. `hibuu `gə `minloo loonam 1 vi. progress, of a period of kunamə. ‘I chased it down by way of the river.’ time (especially a day, or a month); of a period of time, move through its course. dooɲ `tə `caaləə `laa, aloo ə `looləə `laa, `ŋok gɨɨnam-hɨɨnam ə `inləə `laa. ‘As the sun is rising, and the day is moving through its course, so my life is passing away.’ aloo ə looŋam `taduu ku. ‘The day is about to be over.’ vt. provide the provisions of the `oloo -`loo vi. fall down; fall vertically. `oloo `maab, dei! ‘Don’t fall down (be careful)!’ Var: -`lo (third syllable position). vs:mod. Hortative intensifier. Usage: rare. `kaj `loku! 2 ‘Come on, let’s go already!’ `heloo ku! ‘Give it to me after all!’ loo- clfr. Classifier for days. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `looɲi go lagi `rəpə. ‘Roughly it will take two days.’ See: aloo ‘day’. day; manage the food, drink, servers, and other daily necessities for the comfort and sustenance of labourers, particularly reciprocal labourers engaged in house-construction or the like. This is often the responsibility of someone other than the direct beneficiary of the reciprocal labour, often one of his relations or good friends. Takes “aloo” ‘day’ as an associated nominal. `bɨk nam `modak `ogo, ŋo aloo `əm looji kaa. ‘During his house construction, I provided the food and drink.’ `loogaa `lootə n:time. 1 • noon. loonam 2 Var: gennam (P). vi. 2 • lunch. Usage: esp. Pugo. n. element of a loin loom, a bamboo tube set just above the “`taɲi” and below the “loomee”. adj. straight, of a rope of adv. every day. 1 • roll, of a wheel or wheel-shaped object such as a bicycle tire or coin. 2 • swing, of a door. vt. roll a wheel-shaped object. ŋo loodaa `loodak looden `loodɨr any similarly-shaped thing. pəgoo `əm `looduu. ‘I’m rolling the wheel.’ loonii n. marrow; bone marrow. vt. scare off an animal by making loud noises, as a tiger. Syn: `denlom. ace. grievously promiscuous. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `yaloo-`loodɨr ‘unrepentantly slutty’. `loopoo loobak nce. midday. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: aloo-`loopoo ‘noon’. adj. 1 • of the mouth, to be rendered numb or senseless as from eating highly-concentrated betelnut and lime. 295 loobo `lonam 2 • boring. `dɨggo `maaj loobak `duu. ‘Summer is really boring.’ loobo looboo nce. n. comb. See: loobo-gambuu fragments.’ `əə `lok `ponam `ə `na. ‘They’re made from bamboo?’ 3 • some. Gram: Partitive indefinite postposition, usually used to mark indefinite plural nouns which are construed as parts of a larger potential quantity. Generally occurs in irrealis contexts, especially future reference and commands. `am `lok ‘house crest’. loobo-gambuu loobɨɨ n. bridge-like crest erected over a house, used as a ceremonial apparatus. n. hunk of bone; large bone section, as from the hacked-off limb of a cow or mithun. loomee n. element of a loin loom, a tapered stick similar in design to the “`taapə” bunching stick, and possibly having a similar purpose. Set just above the “`lootə”, just below the “`rubuu”. nce. See: kukcoo-`looloo aɲɲii go `cillaa. ‘They planted a bit of paddy.’ `ɨlɨɨ `əm `pɨtə `na `lok `laatak. ‘Get some stones from among the big ones.’ `kobuu `lok `apt `kee! ‘Shoot (some) rats!’ 4 • with. Gram: Accompaniment postposition to a noun phrase, usually marking objects which are affected ‘in addition to’ an accusative-marked object. ŋoii `lok `looloo loohap ‘fig tree (variety)’. n. comb used primarily for de-lousing hair; formed of a series of relatively flat bamboo strips joined at the base and fanning outward like a Chinese fan. Lice which are caught by the comb may be crushed between the comb sections. ŋo acin `əm don `duu. ‘I eat rice with fish.’ 5 • of. Gram: Partitive postposition, marking a noun as a whole or set/group ‘of’ or ‘from (among) which’ an entity is selected. `ŋok `hobin `əm `gamn `lok `ikii `dorkɲi go ŋo `apto. ‘I shot two of the dogs who bit my goat.’ `lokə Var: `lok. pos. 1 • from. Gram: Ablative postposition marking sources of non-motion-oriented verbs, as well as association of objects to spaces or locations Usage: Usually reduces to [lok]. `lokkə pos. from. Gram: General marker of sources of motion or time, unspecified for direction. `iji `gə `lokkə, `hɨrum `gobə ‘from now until tonight’. loŋpən lotek nam go `lok louu go `uulen `laa. ‘A light was emerging from a house.’ `mook-mook `lok ɲii adək-adək `duu. ‘People from different places are different.’ 2 • with; using. Gram: Meditative postposition, marking the method or means used to carry out an action. n. trousers; Source: English. long pants. Var: lɨtek (P). n. half-visible penis tip. n. salt cellar; salt container, loduu `lonam traditionally fashioned from a length of bamboo. sun-dry; spread something out to dry it under the vt. `kocək `lok hɨɨtum rə. ‘(I) will stop up (the container) with leaf 296 `lobo `lɨɨkə sun. ŋo `murkoo `dol `lorə. ‘(I’ll be so rich that) I’ll just lay all my money out to dry in the sun like paddy.’ Loruu-Merruu name. Loru Meru, legendary name of a place from which salt was taken in the days before extensive trade. `lobo n:time. rainy season; used by some speakers to refer to the sixth moon cycle of the agricultural calendar. `lorup `lorə nce. dark moon. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `poolo-`lorup ‘dark moon’. n. ritual platform used during lobə pos. up to (a point). Gram: Dumessive spatial/temporal postposition; on time expressions (including clauses denoting points in time), indicates a point in time which is understood as being led up to. On spatial expressions, marks a point ‘up to which’ an event will endure or have its effect. ŋo `hog `lob `ɲum an animal sacrifice, on which a “`ɲibo” will stand and chant to the spirits. `loloo expr. expressive denoting a tɨɨrə. ‘I’ll just smoke (the cigarette) up to this point.’ `ikii-hob `lob `laarek kaa. ‘He took from me everything up to and including my livestock.’ dooɲ-`aadak `lobə, `gɨŋam `lamaa to. ‘I couldn’t finish ploughing (my field) before sunset.’ loud or vivid sound. loloo `əmlaa `modak `lakaa! ‘(The loudspeaker) is surprisingly loud, in fact!’ `lɨoo n. stone weight, used as an element of a “`lɨɨpum-karnam” fishing system to weigh down the apparatus and avoid erosion by the force of river water. `lɨor -`lɨɨ n. variety of hard stone which breaks off into sharp sections. -`lom vs:val. frighten; shock; startle. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject frightens or shocks the object as a result of the action indicated by the verb. May be applicative on verbs of locution. vs:adv. want; desire. Gram: Desiderative verb suffix indicating that the subject wants or desires to bring about the action indicated by the verb. `talɨɨ maa. ‘Be quiet!’ ŋo arum kan `bə, homen ə `rɨgii `lo `umlom `dagee. ‘Late in the evening, a tiger at the field’s edge frightened us with its roar.’ `yoo `gocin `dolɨɨ maa. ‘I don’t want to eat anything.’ `bɨɨk `rɨlɨɨ namm `əm `bɨɨ `rɨr `com. ‘She’ll do as she likes, I suppose.’ `kaalɨɨ `lɨɨkaa `lomnam vi. 1 • be or feel shocked or startled, as after seeing something unexpected. 2 • be active, as though imbued vt. like someone or something; want to or like to see someone. with spirit or electricity; be inspired to move in rapid bursts and not simply lie about; hurry (up). `lomt `yoo! ‘Hurry up (don’t just sit around)!’ n. igneous stone, because very black in colour in the Galo area; volcanic fossilized wood. n. cobble; medium-sized stone, as might be used for paving a road. 1 `lɨɨkap `lɨɨkə n. variety of valuable black 297 `lɨɨkə lɨɨpum-karnam stone used for making beads. lɨɨcɨɨ Var: lɨɨsɨɨ (P). adj. red, as nail `lɨɨkə 2 n. pebble; very small stone. n. variety of valuable blue or polish or blood. `lɨɨkər lɨɨgin `lɨɨcɨk yellow stone, possibly turquoise, used for making beads. n. prickly heat. Usage: (P). See: `ɨrbuk ‘prickly heat’. `lɨɨgoo `lɨɨgəə Var: `lɨɨguu (P). n. neck; throat, especially, as construed as a round object. n. element of a “`hibok” fishing dam, a large stone placed atop the dam apparatus, used to give weight and support so that the elements are not eroded and washed aside by the current. Var: `lɨɨsək (P). n. pebble; stone. Syn: `lɨɨci, Var: `lɨɨsɨk (P). n. 1 • array of stones in a fireplace used to enclose and concentrate a fire, as well as to position cooking materials such as pots or meats for roasting over the fire. Usage: archaic. 2 • iron tripod used positioning pots over a fire. for `lɨɨtak `lɨɨtor `lɨɨtə n. massive boulder, roughly elephant-sized or above. n. hard stone; pure stone, without sand admixture; usually whitish-tan in colour. Var: `lɨɨt. n. boulder; stone. Syn: `lɨɨnə. `lɨɨcak large very small `lɨɨyaa. lɨɨnam `lɨɨcak-bəree `lɨɨci n. pebble; very small stone. Syn: `lɨɨci-bəree. See: `lɨɨcak ‘pebble’; bəree ‘small thing’. n. pebble; small Syn: `lɨɨcak, `lɨɨyaa. n. pebble; very Syn: `lɨɨcak-bəree. v:c.arg. be red; become red. Gram: Generally occurs with associated noun/adjective “yalɨɨ” ‘red’ Var: `lɨɨn. n. boulder; very large stone. Syn: `lɨɨtə. n. variety of valuable white stone. `lɨɨnə `lɨɨci-bəree Var: `lɨɨsak-lɨɨɲak (P). `lɨɨpuu `lɨɨpum stone. See: `lɨɨci ‘pebble’; bəree ‘small thing’. Var: `lɨɨsuu (P). n. hump, as 1 on a cow or camel. 2 small stone, possibly marble, used for making beads. n. cylindrical stone pile fish trap; pile of stones formed into a cylinder by binding with an “ɨcɨr” bamboo wall, used as the main body of a system for trapping fish by removing stones into which fish have been driven to hide, and causing them to escape into an “`ɨdɨr” fishing valve trap. vt. method of fishing by piling stones into a “`lɨɨpum” stone cylinder fish trap. See: `lɨɨpum ‘stone pile’; karnam ‘pile something’. `lɨɨcuu `lɨɨcuu n. pebble; very small piece of stone. `lɨɨcum Var: `lɨɨsum (P). n. variety of valuable green stone, possibly jade, used for making beads. Var: `lɨɨsum-`lɨɨkər (P). n. various `lɨɨcum-`lɨɨkər brightly coloured stones or beads. See: `lɨɨcum ‘jade’; `lɨɨkər ‘turquoise’. lɨɨpum-karnam 298 `lɨɨpoo -`lɨk `lɨɨpoo neck; especially, a neck construed as a trunk-like object. n. n. heap or pile of stones of Var: `lɨɨguu (P). `lɨɨrɨɨ -`lɨɨlɨɨ n:num. thousand. Usage: (NW). Var: `ajar (L). vs:adv. really want; very much want. no kaakaa `lɨɨlɨɨ do? ‘You really want to see it?’ See: -`lɨɨ ‘want; desire’. name. name of a popular mountain in Likabali circle. Var: `lɨɨsək (P). n. crack in `lɨɨpom any size, of a more or less pyramid shape, but with no particular design to their arrangement. Lɨɨlɨɨ-Looloo `lɨɨhək `lɨɨpə n. sharpening stone; stone n. algae growing on stones n. used for sharpening knives. `lɨɨmik `lɨɨmɨk `lɨɨməə the voice. adj. of the voice, to crack or be in rivers. gravel; sand; small pebbles. n. variety of divination in cracking. `lɨɨhək kaaku. ‘(My) voice cracked.’ -`lɨɨ...-pak which rocks are gathered without counting, sand is filtered and chanted over, and spirits are appealed to in order to ask whether a hunt will be successful or not. After finishing the appeal, the speaker clucks and says “`pumpek go `nent `kaa” or “`pumpek `tokaa” and places them down. The stones are counted in twos; if one stone remains and the number is thereby odd as requested, the hunt will be successful (it is also possible to ask for an even number, as “`pumsi `tokaa”). vs:advs. tolerate. Gram: Split desiderative suffix usually occurring in the negative, indicating a strong dislike or intolerance, as though one cannot even stand the idea of doing something. ŋo `is `hulɨɨ `hupak maa. ‘I can’t be bothered with bathing.’ `talɨɨ-`tapak kumaa! ‘I’m sick of hearing that!’ See: -`lɨɨ ‘want to’; -pak ‘love to’. -`lɨk vs:val. 1 • into. Gram: Directional suffix, indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed into a space. Adds a Locative noun phrase understood as a Goal into which the action is directed. `əm `lɨɨyaa 1 n. slate; soft stone; easily breakable stone with too much sandy sediment mixed in, usually black. `alo `dəəlɨk `la `morə! ‘I’m going to make (the paper airplane) fly into the fire!’ 2 • on; into; affecting. Gram: non-directional sense introducing an obligatory argument metaphorically treated as a Goal, which the event indicated by the verb is somehow directed at or on, or which will otherwise be affected (often as a maleficiary) boŋam `lɨgla...‘He `lɨɨyaa `lɨɨyaa 2 n. collar, of a shirt. pebble; 3 n. Syn: `lɨɨcak, `lɨɨci. small stone. `lɨɨyaa-bəree `lɨɨruu n. pebble. See: `lɨɨyaa ‘pebble’; bəree ‘small thing’. n. hole in a stone. invited them all mithun-sacrificing)...’ to (his 299 `ɨlɨk -`ləə `ɨlɨk vt. insert by stretching, as when inserting a log into the fire. `ɨhɨɨ `əm `ɨlɨk kaato! ‘Put the log in the fire (stretching your hand to do so)!’ made by the addressee, and would appreciate repetition or clarification. Carries a distinctive upward intonation contour. `yoo `laa lə? ‘What...was that (that you said)?’ `jilɨk send someone. vte. something to `lə `naalɨk `palɨk vt. throw something into a space, such as an empty container. vt. sacrifice an animal for a particular purpose, as to cure a disease. hob go `palɨk `pə lagi `duu. ‘We have to kill a mithun (to cure it).’ pcl. eh? Gram: Clarification marker marking a statement or question as a request for clarification, as when a speaker is responding to something he or she finds dubious, unlikely or difficult to comprehend. Carries a distinctive downward-falling intonation contour. `yoo `rɨkaa `lə? ‘What happened (I didn’t catch it)?’ əmmaa `lə! ‘I didn’t tell you, you say?!’ “`iip” `lə? ‘Did you say “iipə”?’ -lɨk vs:adv. reciprocally. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is carried out reciprocally amongst equal participants. Generally followed by Reflexive suffix “-hi”. ləum `ləo `ləə n:time. thrice. n. ankle tendon. ŋo `hɨɨn `əm kərlɨk rə. ‘I’ll cut down his tree on him (as revenge for what he did to me).’ pcl. Abessive postposition. Gram: Marks a noun as something remembered, and which is not present at the time of speaking Usage: Usually spoken of in an jilɨk (-jiak) give (gifts) reciprocally. nam-`duur `əm adin ŋoii `əm jilɨk jiak hinam ə al `na. ‘It’s good to give reciprocal gifts to a neighbour.’ vt. n. black shirt; black tunic. vt. insert; put something n. sleeve, of a shirt. See: lɨglɨk-laglak `lɨkkə `lɨgnam lɨgbuu lɨglɨk into something else. ace. attitude of reminiscence, or with a lonely, wistful sense. Sometimes may be translated into English as ‘old x’ or ‘dear old x’. Dɨp `bol `ləə...`rəmen bee `kə. ‘Back down in old Dɨpə...times were good, you know.’ `am `ləə `jaa jiji, ɲim `bə! ‘That one would be worth having as a wife (although she’s too fine for me, and I’m sure I can’t have her).’ no `ləə, `kaanek `ə! ‘Poor you, stuck in this permanent condition of ugliness!’ ‘dazzling’. -`ləə lɨglɨk-laglak lə adj:expr. dazzling; extremely shiny and glittering. vs:adv. gradually; cumulatively; continuously. Gram: Temporal pcl. eh? Gram: Clarification marker indicating that a speaker has incompletely heard or not properly understood a statement or question suffix indicating that an event is graded (composed of multiple iterations of the same activity over a continuous and potentially long period of time). Often used in verb reduplications to indicate the 300 ləəgoo `ləken-`ləken passage of time, as rwləə-rwləə-rwləə-rwləə...‘doing it and doing it and doing it and going on doing it...(the time passed thus)’. `menləə haa yaa kaamaa. ‘There’s not that much more to tell.’ `bəələə `laa, buluk ennam `əm `bəəduu ku. ‘Having kept it continuously, (they) still have their writing system.’ `moləə `laku, `moləə `laku, `bul `cenləə `laku. ‘Going on doing that, they came to understand (how to write).’ `caaləə `laa, `caaləə `laa, `caaləə `laa dooɲ-`pool `mook `tol `caalen `duu. ‘He kept on going up, up, up, up until finally they reached the place of the Sun and Moon.’ vs:nf. same pace; at the same speed. `boo `ə `ɲibbom ləələə `jaabə `memmin `gəduu. ‘The assistant is following along with the shaman precisely (in chanting).’ -lək vs:adv. do something in stages or steps. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that an action is performed not just as a one-off activity, but rather comprises several stages or steps `rɨlək `ləken vt. do in stages or steps. taək-palək nam ‘to repair fan palm shingling on a roof’. n:time. once; one time; one iteration of an action or event. Gram: Obligatorily followed by “go” concurrently; simultaneously. Gram: Temporal subordinating suffix indicating that the marked event occurs concurrently to or simultaneously with (at the same time as) the event indicated by a following verb. Ab `bɨɨ `ləken go ŋom `dopak to. ‘He beat me at eating once.’ porok ə `ləken-`ləɲi go kogboolo `ŋun `uuduu, `əi? ‘When the cock crows once or twice, we get up, eh?’ n:qual. as one; together; united. Tanii `məələə `induu ku. Abo Tani went along, thinking (as he did). `doləə `caaduu. ‘They eatingly come up/come up eating as they go (of ants).’ `bul attɨr ə `ləken `gobə `yuppom toku. ‘They all slept together as one.’ `ləken `ə ləəgoo Var: ləəgəə (P). n. variety of bird, smaller than robin, mostly black, white underbelly, white on wings, darts quickly. n. Usage: (P). See: `agəə adv. suddenly; at once. `hodum `ə `ləken `ə `joblen `laku. ‘The barking deer leapt out all of a sudden.’ `ləken `ne ləəgəə ‘storage area’. `ləənam ləənam ləəbɨɨ ləələə vt. keep; place; set. Usage: (P). See: anam ‘keep (L)’. Var: rəənam (P); kuunam (P). vt. swing something, adv. someday; sometime; sometimes. `ləken `ne kaarɨk `hiduu `kubə. ‘Someday we will meet again, God willing.’ `ŋunuk agom ə `ɨrgaa `duu, `ləken `ne. ‘Our language is really interesting, sometimes.’ adv. together. `ŋuɲɲə `ləken `bə `immen `laju. ‘Let’s go for a walk together.’ n:time. sometime. as a bag from its straps. n. shoulder. adv. continuously; with the `ləken `bə `ləken-`ləken 301 `ləko `ləjəə Gram: not generally used alone, but derived in a variety of oblique/adverbial time expressions `ləken-`ləken `bə cavity on the leg opposite the knee. `ləgo n. rudimentary or temporary Var: `ləgəə (P). adj. See: laggoo ŋo `hodum `abduu. ‘From time to time I shoot deer.’ bridge over a river. `ləko `ləgoo `ləgok ace. See: `ləko-`ləpek ‘legs crossed’. bowlegged. ‘bow-armed’. n. `ləkoo n. blade anchor; portion of a blade extending into the handle to give the whole strength/support. crack in the foot, especially on the heel, as in winter or with older villagers. cause. `ləkor `ləgɨɨ-`ləgaa ləgnam n. step; step of the foot; pace. adj. n. reason; See: `ləgaa ‘reason’. `ləko-`ləpek cross-legged sitting style, i.e. with one knee crossed over the other and (generally) only one foot touching the ground. `ləko-`ləpek `la `duuduu ~ `ləko-`ləpək `duu. ‘sitting cross-legged’. Syn: pakoo-`ləpek. vt. manipulate a flat thing; leaf or file through a stack of flat things, such as a book, a stack of papers or a pile of (folded) clothes; open a window. abor-abor `bə `ləglen `tokee. ‘Take them out sheet by sheet.’ vt. slide `ləkɨɨ `ləkɨɨ `ləgnam n. calf-let; 1 Var: `ləjin (P). anklet worn on the top of the calf, just below the knee. 2 something, as across the floor. `occik `əm `bɨəm `ne `ləgji kaa. ‘I slid the knife (across the floor) to her.’ n:time. five times. Var: `ləkəə. n:time. long ago; ləŋŋo `ləci way back when. `ləkɨɨ `ogo, horok ə rəbbee `ɲii. ‘A long time ago, it seems there were rhinoceros about.’ `ləkəə `lo, `ŋun `aken `ə rəto. ‘In the past, we lived alone.’ Var: `ləsi (P). n. left leg; left foot; left leg, including foot. Var: `ləsəə (P). n. toe. `ləcəə `ləcəə-`cəi `ləjin ləkkə `ləgaa n:time. six times. n. pinkie toe; smallest toe. See: `ləcəə ‘toe’; `cəii ‘pinkie finger’. n. reason; purpose; benefit. `yoo `ləgaa `dɨɨ? ‘Why/for what reason?’ n:rel. because; for; owing to. `ək `ləgaa `bə...‘because of that...’ `bul kaamaa nam `ləgaa `bə...‘Because they don’t have any...’ n. under-knee; armpit-like adj. stretched legs; outstretched legs. `tujin-`ləjin `tokee! ‘Stretch out your legs!’ adj. knock-kneed; walking with both knees touching. n. lame person; someone who `ləgaa `bə `ləjuu `ləjəə can’t walk properly, as a baby or someone with a stubbed toe. adj. lame; unable to walk properly, as a baby or after `ləgap 302 `ləɲi `ləbok stubbing one’s toe. `ləɲi n:time. twice. `ləɲək `lətam `lətuu n. ankle tendon area; the soft area directly behind the ankle. n. sole of the foot. tossing or using a planting stick, but instead using hands or trowel, as rice into a wet field; transplant, as a plant which is already growing. `lənam adj. half-legged; stub-legged, whether from accident or birth. adj. fold up or have legs Var: `ləəten (P). vt. 2 vt. flick or toss something sidearm; hurl or throw something with relatively great force. `lətum `ləten `lənə n. big toe; thumb toe. folded or crossed Indian-style. cover something with one’s foot; drape one’s foot or lean one’s leg over someone or something, particularly when lying down adjacent. `ŋom `ləten `yookee! ‘Don’t put your foot on me!’ `lənə-potii `ləpaa Var: `lənə-tuubə (P). n. tip of the big toe. See: `lənə ‘big toe’; potii ‘tip’. n. 1 • shin of the leg. 2 • median of a quantity; middle `lətɨk `lətə Var: `ləkɨɨ (P). n. base of a heap; foot or base of a mountain. n. calf of the leg. n. stinger, on a bee or on a of a solid object; centre; core; between (two objects). nuɲik `ləpaa `lo ŋo `yubrə. ‘I’ll sleep between the two of you.’ in the middle; not-too-extreme. `ləpaa `pə `lagee. ‘One should be in the middle (not too much this way, not too much that).’ adj. `lətək `lədek python. n. crack in the leg or foot, as in winter when cold and skin is dry. `ləpum n. toes, construed as a set; adj. of the leg or foot, to be cracked. ŋo `dɨcɨɨ `əm, `lədek `dedduu. ‘My feet get cracked during wintertime.’ front section of a foot. `ləpum pugnam ‘to pull/strip the skin from the front part of a foot, as of a chicken’. `ləpee `ləden vi. of the leg, to twitch. leg cramp, as from walking back and forth to your field all day. n. vt. twitch one’s leg; cause one’s leg to twitch. `lədo n. heel of the foot, conceived as including the base and sides. adj. lame. adj. short-legged. 1 adj. cramped or fatigued, of one’s foot or leg. `ləpee `ə! ‘Wah! What a cramp!’ `ləpek `lədɨr `lədəə ace. legs crossed. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: pakoo-`ləpek ‘legs crossed’; `ləko-`ləpek ‘legs crossed’. n:time. four times. n. foot-and-mouth disease `lənam vt. plant a seed or seedling ləppii `ləbok directly into the ground, not by 303 `ləbor `ləhok (FMD); aftosa; variety of foot disease affecting ungulates (mithuns and cattle), which does not spread to humans but can be fatal to livestock. See: `amə ‘body hair’. `ləyor ləyyɨɨ ace. See: `tuhor-`ləyor ‘stretch out the legs’. Var: nəyyɨɨ (P). adj. similar; same; identical. `əg agom ə ləyyɨɨ doo! ‘That’s the same thing (that I’m saying)!’ Var: ləyyɨɨ (P). n:time. ten times. `ləbor `ləbɨɨ n. surface of foot, including heel, sole and toe and upper surface. n. knee. n. kneecap. Usage: (P). lərɨɨ `lələ `ləbɨɨ-tatək `ləbək See: `taci-`poolo ‘kneecap (L)’. Var: `ləbɨk (P). n. right leg and/or foot. `ləbnam Var: `legnam (P). vi. slip, as when walking on a muddy surface. `alap `dagna, `ləbdee `laa. ‘(The road) is slippery, you might slip.’ adv. quickly. `hok `ihi-`abuu `hokə, `ləl `əmla `moin boolo, `bun `yoolok `palaa `rənna. If we go down quickly via this here river, how will they be able to get us? Var: `ləsin (P). n. toenail. `ləhin `ləhok n. variety of foot infection (possibly fungal). `ləmen `ləmə anklet, traditionally made of brass or thread. n. n. leg hair. Var: `ləmo. 304 satii Soi S satii Siji n. umbrella. Source: Assamese. name. - s whistled at me.’ name Likabali circle. of a river in `Siyom Soi sitii Var: hitii. n. letter; Source: Assamese. epistle. name. Siyom, name of a major river in West Siang District. `sinam v:c.arg. whistle. Gram: usu. occurs with associated lexeme “`husi” ‘whistle’ `ŋom `diimii `ə name. name of a Lare Galo-speaking village in central West Siang district. `hus `sikaa `la. ‘The demon 305 -ha `habə H -ha -si; -sa; -s. vs:nzr. Irrealis/obligative nominalizer to a verbal or adjectival root. Gram: Var: -hi; - h force out excrement when constipated or when delivering a child. Derives a noun with the basic meaning ‘thing that is to be done’, ‘thing that (the subject) must do’ or ‘thing that will be (the case)’. Can also derive an irrealis non-subject noun with the basic meaning ‘one that x is to be done to’. Also used to form counterfactual/hypothetical expressions such as ‘if x had been the case, y would have...’ aas go `bəree. `haguu hagnam `hagɨɨ n. asthma. vi. breathe; inhale exhale air when breathing. or vi. sigh, as in resignation vi. vi. or sadness. `haglen `haglɨk `hajar exhale; inhale; breathe breathe n:num. outward. inward. Var: hajar (P). thousand. Source: Syn: `lɨɨrɨɨ. ‘I suppose we’ll be leaving now (lit., I suppose it’s a case of our to-be-leaving).’ insaa `bəree immaa haa `bəree? ‘Should I go or not? (I’m of two minds)’. `mərum `nensaa `ne. ‘Actually, I had to go yesterday (but I didn’t, so I absolutely must go today). puruu `ne jihi kaaku maa. ‘There wasn’t anything left to give Whitecrested Laughing Thrush.’ `əm `rɨt `duu `ham...‘Instead of doing that...’ ŋo `alo aamaa naggee boolo, `rooko maa haee. ‘If I hadn’t gone there, I wouldn’t have gotten scolded.’ Assamese. `happaa n. pass constructed beneath a “`higo” fishing platform as an element of a “`hapsum-`henam” fishing apparatus. Fish are driven through the pass, at which point they are collected by a handled net. v. `hapsum-`henam `mensa Var: `mensi; `mens. n. thing to say; point needing to be made. `mens `jaa kaamaa. ‘I don’t have much to say.’ `rɨsa `haa Var: `rɨsi; `rɨs. n. task; pending task; thing one has to do. Var: `saa; `hɨa. n. tea. Source: Assamese. haanam vi. tense or tense up the inner muscles and push, as to variety of fishing technique, in which an “ɨcɨr” bamboo barrier is made across the length of a stream and a “`higo” fishing platform constructed in the centre. Beneath the platform, a handled net is suspended across a pass, into which fish are driven and caught. ŋo `hig go gokaa `dee, `hapsum-`heduu `bə. ‘I’ll go ahead and erect a fishing platform for “hapsum” fishing, eh?’ n. `habə loincloth, generally a 306 habnam -hi simple white towel, as traditionally worn by older men. `habb `ə `kogyəə `duu! ‘Your loincloth is lying to the side (I can see your...)!’ rope-like thing; of rope, untie of itself. vt. untie a rope or string-like thing. habnam 1 vt. 1 • count individuals; harnam enumerate, as in school. something as or among something. `mɨɨ `happaa maanam ɲii goku `na. ‘He’s someone we don’t even consider (we just ignore him or count him out).’ 2 • consider vi. 1 • play (as children). `harmen `duu. ‘(We’re) playing (as children).’ 2 • make noise. vt. fornicate; indulge in sexual activities with someone. `harsuk `halii `hi vi. be free; be not busy or engaged. habnam 2 vt. grasp, pinch or cut with any pincer-like tool, such as fingers, tongs, tweezers, chopsticks, or scissors. adum `əm habrə. ‘I’ll cut my hair.’ `hablɨk `tokee! ‘Put it in (to the fire, with the tongs)!’ n. betelnut mixture, betelnut taken with pan leaf and (usually) lime. Var: `hɨ. dem. this. Gram: Simple proximate demonstrative used to refer to something closer to the speaker than to the hearer, or which is currently being discussed or about to be mentioned in a conversation `habree n. handle of a handled fishing net, used as an element of a “`hapsum-`henam” fishing apparatus. n. power; magical power or vt. step. vi. slip `habro ability. hamnam `haŋgek or slide on something trodden-on, such as excrement, dirtying oneself. vi. miss a step; step ŋo `hɨm `ikii `hɨm `bəəruu `kul `peelom məənam ə. ‘I thought that be any means I must take this here dog!’ `ahi omee `ahi agom `əm `taben `duu! ‘That there boy really listens to what one says (spoken ironically)!’ -hi Var: -si. vs:val. by oneself; to oneself. Gram: Reflexive suffix. On an intransitive verb, indicates that the subject acts ‘by itself’, without help from others. On a transitive verb, usually indicates that the subject and object are the same (i.e., ‘John hits himself’). Often occurs together with reflexive pronouns. `hamŋaa where there should have been a surface, but isn’t (due to a hole or cliff). hamten hampək `harcek vt. step on something. n. traditional broom made from young, tightly-clasped fan palm leaves. Var: `harsək (P). adj. bland; flavourless; tasteless. vi. `harnam be untied, of a `bɨɨ aɨɨ ə `rɨhi rə. ‘He’ll do it himself.’ `ŋok `uŋŋaa `ə `duuhi `duuku. ‘My baby has started to sit all by himself.’ `mohi `laju. ‘Let’s make one for ourselves.’ enraa hikaa `tokee. ‘Just try to put up with it.’ 307 Hiaa hiɲik Hiaa `Hii hiik -hik name. Siang River, largest river barely touching them. in East Siang District and source of the Brahmaputra in Assam. name. name of a river in the hikaa vi. give an offering, as to Baasar area. adj. grainy. Usage: (P). See: iik ‘grainy’. Var: -sik. vs:adv. 1 • join. Gram: Result suffix indicating that two things that had previously been separate (but not necessarily separated as parts from whole) are joined together as a result of the action indicated by the verb. In most cases, the ‘joined’ things should be objects with some length, as sticks 2 • take up. Gram: Result suffix indicating that in bringing about the action indicated by the verb, the subject ‘takes up’ the work or the activity initiated, but not completed, by someone else. make merit, receive a blessing or show sympathy or love for someone. hikaa `tab `caaɲaa kaa. ‘They went up to present an offering (to receive a blessing).’ Hikaa-Hiyaa `higik name. name of a river in Upper Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh. n. dirty water. adj. dirty, of water. `Iigoo abuu ə `higik `laa `dagduu ku `lakaa. ‘The Igo River is all muddied up for some reason.’ `higur `higo `higo n. spring; opening in the earth from which groundwater (hot or cold) emerges directly. 1 n. hot water; boiled water. See: `ago ‘warm/hot’. nɨksik vt. join two pieces of a long thing together by pushing them with some force. 2 n. variety of fishing platform, bəəhik vt. join two ends of a long thing. `əə tuub `əm bəəhik `tokee. ‘Take the other end of the bamboo pole and carry it (together with me).’ constructed as part of a “`hapsum-`henam” fishing apparatus. Fish are driven beneath the platform, and caught using a handled net. `Hiŋen `hicin name. name of a river near Koyuu village. nce. `rɨhik vt. take of and continue someone’s work, so as to provide continuity. `an-abo `gə `rɨnam `əm `rɨhik `ləələə int `kaa. ‘Take up and continue your parents’ work (as to provide generational continuity).’ Var: `hisin (P). See: `hicin-domaa ‘famine’. n. hicin-domaa Var: hisin-domaa (P). starvation; famine. ɲidoo omaa boolo, hicin-domaa `aadee `duu. ‘If it doesn’t rain, there may be famine.’ -`hik vs:adv. barely. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject affects the object only slightly, indirectly, or barely as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. hijaa `hijik hiɲik n. swamp; muddy area. n. muddy water; brackish n. local name of the Subansiri water. River. `nɨksik punch someone, 308 hiɲo himaa-cənam hiɲo nce. n. mud. See: arə-hiɲo ‘freak happening’. hitum Siang District after which the “Puugoo” dialect of Galo is named. hitum-`gaalum hiduk n. variety of very hipo large black Var: itum-`gaalum. bumblebee. n. fury; frenzy; whirlwind of frenzied anger and violence; belligerence of behaviour, as in spontaneous anger. Var: hipu. vi. backbite; talk about someone in a negative way behind their back. no `yoo `rɨlaa hip pugoo `la `rəduu `na? ‘What are you doing going around talking about me behind my back?’ n. 1 • raft. hipə frenzied; furious. hiduk dugnam ‘to become frenzied or furious’. adj. 2 • variety of fishtrap made by `hidor `hidɨɨ n. clean water; pure water. n. muddied water. `hido-`higik creating a dam with a channel running through it, with a catching area into which fish will occasionally fall into, but cannot escape from. n. waterfall; falling water; includes only the water itself, not the entire system. Syn: `poodɨɨ. vi. die. hikaa ku `lakaa. name. name of the sixth `hipəə `hibin `hibuu Hibum `hibok n. 1 • border of a rice field. 2 • rice field. n. miser. hinam ‘What the...it’s dead!’ adj. miserly. n. river. name. name of a river in `Hintuu entity in the universe, generated by “`Miihin” and progenitor of “Tuurɨ”. Baasar area. n. dam, made for fishing; river diversion system consisting of an upstream and downstream dam (“`bogdum” and “`bokko”) made at either end of a river diversion (“`bogbɨɨ”). Fish are able to enter, but cannot escape. `Hindii Hindi. n. Hindi language. Source: vt. hit with a relatively hinnam (2) hard, solid object, especially a stick; play a sport involving hitting with a stick, such as cricket. hikku `lap `ree? ‘Shall we play (cricket)?’ `hibə-rɨɨnam `hinnə `hipuu 1 n. red jungle fowl hen. n. flood; emergency release of water from an over-taxed river system, as during a heavy rainstorm. `Hipuu v. variety of fishing technique, in which herbal poison is pounded via a “mukaa” poisoning platform and released into the water. Fish are then collected downstream at the “tamo-nappaa” endpoint of the poison drift. n. corpse; dead body. 2 Var: `Sipuu. name. name of a river in mid-northern West himaa himaa-cənam 309 himek hu- Var: himaa-hənam (P). v. keep watch over an unburied corpse, so as to not allow any ill effects (such as return of the departed spirit) to transpire. struggle to be alive; begin kicking and twitching after one has already been thought dead, especially of a dog. himek `himoo n. epilepsy. `hiloo adj. have epilepsy. Var: `hɨloo (P). n:time. today. `hiloo `maaj `hɨkɨr `duu. ‘It’s cool today.’ Var: `hɨloo-`məloo (P). n:time. recently; these days; nowadays; in recent times. `hiloo-`məroo `gə `ɲijɨr `gadd `ə al kumaa. ‘The girls of today aren’t any good anymore.’ surface of face/area around the sideburns, apparently named because punching a man here may cause his death. n. `hiloo-`məroo himpo Hirik hiruu 1 Var: himpo (P). n. red jungle fowl cock. See: `pɨrsin ‘red jungle fowl’. name. name of a river in n. porcupine den; porcupine name. name of a river in n. drought; lack of water. Hilɨɨ Kamba-Darak circle. hole. Var: Silɨɨ. name. Hilɨɨ (Silɨɨ), name of a Galo village in Likabali Circle, West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. 1 `Hilə `hilə name. name of a river in Baam Hiruu 2 area. 2 n. pond; lake; deep section of a river; portion of a river in which the flow slows, levels, deepens and broadens, and where depth is more than around three meters and which may accordingly be suitable for swimming and dive-fishing. `hilə-aanam ‘to dive into a river’. Kamba-Darak circle. `hiruk `hiruk-`moohen n. desert-like conditions; drought and drying-up of an area due to lack of rain. `hiree n. variety of fishtrap made by creating a dam with a channel running through it, with a catching area off to the side which fish will occasionally fall into, but cannot escape from. n. sand; in the prototypical `hilək n. water carrier made from a n. head of a pond or section of bamboo. `hilə-`lədum `hilii sense, sand or other small particles in or from a river or other water source; water which contains sand. deep section of a river; point at which a fast flowing river slows, levels, and spreads into a deep, pond-like section. hu- clfqr. Classifier for sets of four, hilii n. plague; pestilence. n. also used for forming numerals on a base of four. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. huppii ‘sixteen’. See: ahu ‘set of `hilum `hilee pipe, Source: Hindi. for smoking. adj. twitch in death throes; four’. 310 huik! -hup...-yap huik! expressive indicating high speed. Gram: must be followed expr. by “`əmlaa” or a shortened form “`əm” pətaa ə `hokkə huik! `əm the handle. Gram: Result suffix indicating that an action results in a body (especially of a blade) being separated from its handle. `dəblen eeku baa. ‘The bird flew out from here at top speed.’ hugnam huu- clfr. Classifier for granaries. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some See: `naahuu adjective roots. name. Huu, name shared by 1 vi. de-handle; be loose or come out, of a blade or spade-head from its handle. yaamee ə `orok hugnam gəraa `doonaa `dɨɨ? ‘Does a real man carry a dao with a loose handle?’ ‘granary’. vt. 1 • extract something from a `Huu two rivers, one from Dooj-Jelii village and the other from Uak village. sheath or other enclosure, such as the soil. 2 • empty something, such as the huunam vi. stink; smell (badly). `ŋun huumaa `duu. ‘We (women) don’t stink.’ vt. smell something. no `opoo contents of a basket. ŋo `poee `əm `hugaa `duu. ‘I’m emptying out the rice beer residue.’ hugnam boobɨɨ `əm `huupaa, `əi? ‘So you smell opo, eh?’ `huunam -`huk vi. rise, of steam. `doohuk `ə `huucaa `duu. ‘The steam is rising.’ of crops, especially 2 vi. rice, to dud out and fail to fruit, or to be destroyed by insects. `ammo hukkaa ku. ‘The paddy dudded out.’ `hugnam hunam vt. ladle; scoop liquid with a ladle. See: `ujuk ‘ladle’. vt. wash one’s body; bathe. Usage: usu. occurs with associated vs:adv. freely. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the subject brings about the action indicated by the verb in a free or unrestricted way, despite any fears or misgivings. `ao noun “`isi” ‘water’. `is `huttaak `kəə. ‘Go take a bath.’ `əm `kaahuk hikaa ku ‘I went ahead and had the baby (despite fears that there would be problems, whereas in fact all went well).’ -hup vs:adv. disorderly. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object, having acted in a disorderly manner, has caused the subject to experience discomfort or impatience. kaahup `harsuk `huk- vi. be free; be not busy or engaged. clfqr. Classifier for ladles or ə! ‘I’ve seen enough (of all this disorder and mess)!’ addo `tahup `duu! ‘What a racket!’ `hupsi ladlefuls of a substance, such as rice beer. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. `ujuk n. variety of edible mushroom, growing on rotten wood, cap-less and curling like a flower. `hukken ‘one ladleful’. -hup...-yap result vs:advs. overly; beyond any reasonable limit. Gram: Split suffix indicating that -huk vs:adv. de-handle; slip out of 311 -`hum `henam something has happened for a long time, or to a great degree, and has become intolerable Usage: Often `Daarɨɨ/Baasar area. `hurup n. bladder. Syn: `hurpo. used in a sense of exasperation, as though to tell someone to shut up or to stop doing what they have been doing immediately. `tahup-`tayap `ə! ‘I’ve had enough of all this talking (shut up)!’ oo-takaa ə dohup-doyap `duu. ‘I’ve been eating too many fiddlehead ferns recently.’ `hurnam `hurpo hursak `husi vi. fall out or spill out, as from a hole in a sack. n. bladder. Syn: `hurup. n. laughing thrush. Usage: (P). Garrulax squamatus. See: cupcak ‘laughing thrush’ (L) Var: `cuci. vt. whistle; whistle to someone. Aci, `Nəii `ne `cuci-`sut `kee! ‘Elder brother, whistle at sixth wife!’ -`hum vs:adv. conceal. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the subject (of an intransitive verb) or the object (of a transitive verb) is concealed as a result of the action indicated by the verb. `pohum `humnam ‘to roll `hee something up into a packet as for carrying it’. n. headstrap; strap worn across the forehead, connected to a basket or other heavy item which is balanced on the back. `duuhum vi. sit concealed in a `heenam likely hiding place, as the jungle. `duuhum `laa `yas `hɨɨduu. ‘(He’s) hiding and peeing.’ fruit, of a fruiting 1 vi. tree; bear fruit. `bəlaa `ə `heeduu ku. ‘The jackfruit’s fruiting/bearing fruit.’ `heenam `naahum `humnam vt. throw something such that it becomes hidden, as in the jungle. vt. enclose; wrap up. 2 vi. be unmade; be in an unmade or undone state, as a taken-apart house. namm ə `heel `dooduu. ‘My house is lying unmade.’ vt. unmake; take apart; unravel; Aci, `hɨgɨm `humt `kee. ‘Elder Brother, please wrap this up (into a packet).’ `humtuu `laa `duuduu ‘squatting’. undo, as a home. -hek -`hur vs:adv. spill. Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object of a transitive verb is spilled out, as from a hole in a sack, as a result of the action indicated by the verb vt. make e.g. a sack vs:adv. out (result). Gram: Result suffix indicating that an object is separated from something as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vt. pull out, as a pen drive from a computer. hessek -`hen `mohur burst, spilling the contents or make something fall from a hole in a sack. vs:adv. wither. Gram: Result suffix indicating that something withers as a result of the action indicated by the verb, as of intense heat radiated by the sun. vt. 1 • pull something. huruk-harak Usage: mainly n. plastic restricted bag. to `henam 2 • drag someone or something by force. 312 `hetak -`hoo 3 • saw something, such as wood. 4 • arrest someone, as a criminal. in a tree. Viverra zibetha and/or Viverra malaccensis. `hetak wither. vt. saw something in two. vi. dry out; dry up; vt. climb something, hoin-holəə varieties. n. wildcats of all `hennam (1) hennam (1) hoi! hoe! int. hoi! Usage: Traditional war cry. expr. whew; phew; aaaah. Usage: Interjection representing especially a tree. `mɨɨ `hɨɨn `aa `heɲcaa `duu. ‘He’s climbing up the tree.’ hennam (2) of a space. vt. pull something out the sound of a sigh, as from exhaustion when on a long journey. `hellen `hennə `heloo give vt. pull something out, `hoo as an arrow which has stuck fast in a target. n. dry or fallen leaf. Var: `elo; ee (P). int. gimme; mithun calf; adolescent mithun; young mithun. 1 n. -`hoo 1 adj:mono. long, of a bamboo section. Ant: -dəə. Gram: Adjective have it. interjection commanding the listener to give the speaker something. `heloo ku! ‘Come on, give it to me (finally)!’ Usage: Hortative it here; let’s root occurring with only a few Classifier roots, including “`təə-” ‘Classifier for bamboo sections’. Opposed to “-dəə” ‘short, of a bamboo section’ `təəhoo ‘long, of a bamboo section’. -`hoo `helom int. lemme see; let’s see that; let me have that for a Usage: Hortative minute. interjection similar to but less forceful than “`heloo”, commanding the listener to give the speaker something, but including a concession that it may be returned. n. length of rope, as for making a lasso or noose. Syn: `pogaa. n. far away. Gram: 2 vs:adv. Directional or result suffix indicating that the action indicated by the verb is directed far away or is transferred into a distance vt. see far away into the `kaahoo `hoo distance. tonight; last night; 2 n:time. night closest to the time of speaking. Gram: Without object marker “`ne”, the default reading is ‘last night’, i.e. the night immediately previous to the time of speaking. With object marker “`ne”, indicates tonight, i.e. the night immediately to follow the time of speaking. `hoaa hoi salt deposit; salt lick; terrestrial salt deposit where animals such as mithun and cattle often congregate to lick the salty minerals. n. civet. Nocturnal, about raccoon-sized, builds a nest high -`hoo 3 Var: -so; -sso. vs:mod. let me x; shall I just x. Gram: Permissive hoin modal suffix forming a proposition implying that the addressee should allow the speaker to perform the action indicated by the verb, possibly in order to benefit the addressee. 313 hoo- hocaa Usually occurs together with Benefactive suffix “-ji”. ŋo `aken go hoom hoə `moji `kaahoo. ‘Let me make one (cigarette) for you.’ hanging bridge, made from bamboo. n. Var: hoɨɨ (P). n. cattle; bovine, irrespective of gender. Bos spp. Var: goom (P). hoo- clfr. Classifier for long and thin objects, as cigarettes, lengths of rope, automobiles and snakes. Gram: Root form, used for combining with numeral roots and some adjective roots. biirii `hooɲi go ‘two cigarettes’. See: ahoo ‘length hokam nce. wizened old animal. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: ɲɨjɨɨ-hokam ‘old man’. `hokek hokə `hokə n. variety of mammal, possibly wolverine bear. n. horse. dem.pos. (of rope, e.g.)’. hoogɨɨ n. sacrificial post; group of pillars fastened together, to which a sacrificial animal (especially a mithun) is tied. n. wire. n. chameleon or perhaps `hoojen `hoojɨɨ from, via or of something or somewhere near to the speaker. `mook `hok `amin `ə `yoo `ə? ‘What’s the name of this place?’ hokə-holar `hokkə pos. salamander; variety of lizard, with yellow and white strips on the back and a black on down the spine; black eyes, about 6-7” long. n. livestock. See: hokə ‘horse’; holar ‘sheep’. a position nearer to the speaker than to the addressee; from a current time. 2 • from 1 • from `hoojɨɨ-`hoopen variety. n. gecko, of any `hooɲo n. tassled bamboo; small bamboo stick whittled until the strips form a large tassle at one end, used as a ubiquitous decorative item on sacrificial altars and other sacred objects. something which is currently under discussion, or which is to be discussed. `hok `pool `hokkə...‘From this month onward...’ `hogo dem.pos. here; to here; at here. `hog `duut `kee! ‘Sit here!’ `hognam hootii n. metal skewer used for roasting or smoke-drying meat. v:c.arg. grow, of a human (at least). Gram: Generally occurs `hoonam Var: `abnam (P). vt. score; draw a line across the length of an object, fairly deeply, with a knife. ŋo `orok `ə gɨɨtuu `əm `hogduu. ‘I’m scoring the pillar with a dao.’ adj. terrified; frightened to with preceding adjective “`ahoo” ‘long/tall’ `ahoo `hoobaa `duu. ‘He’s growing fast.’ See: `ahoo `hoŋak death. ‘long/tall’. hocaa hoonam `hoopen vt. dance. n. chameleon, of the variety that can change its colour. Var: hosaa (P). n. dhole; Asian wild dog. Renowned as fast and opportunistic hunters, who attack prey much larger than themselves (including 314 `hocik hobə barking deer, bear and even mithuns, when hunting as a pack) with an almost suicidal persistence. Dhole urine is said to be a powerful irritant, which is somehow employed as a blinding agent, as a component of its attack. Cuon alpinus. `hodum-`apin `hodum-talii tick. n. deerskin; skin of n. round variety of a barking deer. `hodum-horə `hodo n. big game; large animals which are good to hunt, including deer and wild boar. n. livestock feed. `hocik Var: `hosik (P). n. pangolin (scaly anteater), an armoured anteater curling into a ball when threatened. Manis spp. Var: `hosuu (P). n. mithun `honam `honə `hopin hopo `hobin `hocuu calf. vt. nurture; take care of; raise, e.g. a child. `ao `honam ‘to raise a child’. n. mithun cow. n. mithun skin. hocər hojuu `hojoo `hoɲo n. deer, of a relatively large variety with racked possibly sambar. n. variety of bird. antlers; n. canopy of a climber bush. n. goat, primarily of any domesticated variety. Capra spp. Var: `hojɨɨ (P). n. squirrel. Petaurista spp. flying `hobin-taraa Var: `hobin-takom (P). n. praying mantis. Mantis spp. Syn: `babin-taraa. Var: `hoɲoo (P). n. tiger. Panthera tigris. Syn: homen, `ɲotə. n. armour; barrier, as a `hotam hotɨɨ `hobuk `hobuk hobee nce. See: `bentə-`hobuk floodbank; shield; any protective device, as a helmet. mithun mithuns. n. ‘house lizard’. n. softcover sheath for a n. monkey, in general. herd; herd of dao, made from woven cane. `hotə n. elephant. Elephas maximus n. elephant skin. indica. hobee-`kootar `hotə-`təpin `hotə-`hoɲo hottum n. megafauna; relatively large wild animals. n. bear (the animal). n. bear den. n. monkey buttocks; a monkey’s sitting perch on the buttocks, which becomes hard and calloused. n. variety of crab, hobee-`ceram hobee-rii hobə small (about golden-spotted. fingertip-size), hottum-tumruu hottum-horə general. n. wild animal, in n. loris. prob. Nycticebus spp., poss. Loris lydekkerianus var. `hodum n. barking deer; muntjac. Muntiacus var. n. mithun; semi-domesticated variety of gaur endemic to central Arunachal Pradesh and of inestimable importance to Tani 315 hobə-taaɲii-taaɲii `horii cultural heritage. Mithun have long been viewed as the ultimate symbol of wealth, primary means of large item exchange and valuation of goods of significant value, and principal sacrificial offering at weddings and other festivals and ceremonies of high importance. Galo who keep mithuns will generally construct semi-effective fencing to keep them more-or-less restricted within a particular range, but otherwise pay very little attention to their upkeep and, in general, will leave them to roam freely within a large area. Bos frontalis. cheapest/most affordable one’. homm `əi! ‘How easy/cheap that was (to beat you; you should have argued your side more assiduously)!’ -`hor vs:adv. loosen. Gram: Result verb suffix indicating that something that has been pent-up or constricted is released as a result of the action indicated by the verb, or that the actor brings about the mentioned action in a hurried way or in advance of a deadline Usage: Generally occurs in semi-reduplicated form “-`hor...-`yor”. horak horam horam horii 1 n. rhinoceros. Rhinoceros unicornis. n. otter. Amblonyx cinereus nce. hobə-taaɲii-taaɲii Var: `isi-taaɲi-taaɲii (P). n. concolor. sick old animal. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: ɲikam-horam ‘old woman’. 2 dragonfly. hobə-hoə `homee n. livestock; domesticated animals. large n. relatively small variety of cane. Usage: May be used by some speakers to indicate one or another variety of bamboo. homen n. 1 • big cat of any variety, including leopard or tiger. Usage: most commonly used to ref. to tiger. 2 • wild animal, Usage: (P). n. line on a surface; straight, unbroken line, construed as a direction rather than an ordered sequence of individuals. `hokkə `hogo `lobə horii go bɨkt `kaa. ‘Draw a line from here up to here.’ adj. straight. horii `duu. ‘It’s straight (of a line).’ in general. `horii homen-`ɲokə homen-`ɲotə homen-takar n. black panther. n. tiger. Panthera tigris. Syn: `hoɲo. n. spotted leopard. Panthera pardus. Syn: `ɲoree. n. tiger den. homen-menruu homə adj. Var: `hoorii (P). n. length of line with objects threaded onto it, such as beads or fish. Maybe used as a quantifying noun to indicate such a quantity. `bul `horii `gob `yubduu. ‘They’re all sleeping in a line/row.’ ŋoii `horii `go ‘a length of strung fish’. manageable; do-able; affordable, cheap or reasonably priced. hom `yaaruu `na ‘the adj. well-arranged in sequence, of a row. `nok riinam ə al `bə `horii `duu. ‘Your stringing (work) is really quite good (because all the 316 horii-pikii holar fish are lined up well-ordered sequence).’ in a vt. unspool a wound-up length of horii-pikii Var: horii-pikki; horii-picci. adj. totally straight; utterly or perfectly straight or along a straight path. string, thread or rope; lay out an object with linear extension along its length; make a line across a space with a rope. `hornam horoo adj. spacious; roomy. `hɨgɨ nam `hɨgɨ horoo `duu. ‘This here house is spacious.’ n. wild mithun; escaped, 2 vi. roam; move around without care. `ŋok `ao `ə `horl `rəduu. ‘My child is constantly roaming.’ `horom horə `horpuu feral mithun. n. boar; wild pig. Sus scrofa. n. flat tick. n. 1 • hunting, as n. Ceylon ironwood tree in new leaf. n. crocodile; alligator (poss. neologism). Crocodylus spp. n. grove ironwood trees. `hormen `horluu `horlɨɨ horə-tasi horə-`mootum an activity. 2 • game; of Ceylon spoils of hunting; animals won during a hunting expedition. horə-`mootum `gɨnam ‘go hunting’. See: horə ‘wild boar’; `mootum ‘jungle’. n. monitor lizard, esp. Bengal monitor. Varanus bengalensis. red ironwood tree’. n. Ceylon ironwood tree in leaf. See: nahor ‘Ceylon -`hor...`-yor `horkek `horgok `horci vs:advsr. release. Gram: Split result suffix indicating that some pent-up tension or expectation is released as a result of the action indicated by the verb. vi. go ahead and go; stop dilly-dallying and just `insor-`iɲyor get going. `geekee! ‘Make a clear decision and just go (releasing your pent-up worries about whether to go or not)!’ `insor-`iɲyor n. variety of tree, about 30m tall, with maple-like leaf; no use-value. Var: `horsi (P). n. variety of wildcat with a doglike snout, climbing trees, the size of a small dog, black back, white underbelly, with tail, eats deer, runs fast with a hopping gait, smooth fur. 1 `dohor-`doyor `hornam vi. be disposed vt. go ahead and eat without hesitation. `dohor-`doyor `laa dotok. ‘Go ahead and eat without hesitation.’ Gram: Verb of disposition indicating, of an object with length/extension, upward or downward extension, etc., according to the result suffix applied. `all `əm lengthwise. `rɨhor-`rɨyor leegər `laa `horduul arə. ‘I’ll tie the legs and keep them extended upward.’ vt. do in good time; do expeditiously. aher `əm ŋo `rɨhor `rɨyor rə. ‘I’ll do the work before the appointed deadline.’ n. sheep. Ovis spp. holar 317 holii `hɨɨtə holii n. breeding mithun; mithun n. fence. See: ohoo ‘rope’. especially as for cooking meat. used to establish a line. `hɨɨcoo holuu holəə n. large variety of wildcat, possibly clouded leopard. Neofelis nebulosa ?. n. civets and suchlike. outstretching tree branch; tree branch outstretching parallel to the ground, suitable for hanging from or sitting on. n. n. variety of wild fruiting `hɨɨcɨr holəə-`taso hosi indica. Var: hos. n. porcupine. Hystrix Var: hos-`boobii. n. tree; fruits are thumb-sized, brown when ripe, and with a unique smell which some love and some hate. hosi-`boobii porcupine needle. `hɨɨji quill; porcupine n. variety of tree, about 30m tall, with thin canopy. `hɨɨj-iŋin `hɨɨjo `hɨo n:time. eighth moon cycle of the n. cassava. Manihot esculanta. Syn: `hɨɨnə-iŋin. n. variety year, roughly mid-July to mid-August. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of August. -hɨɨ vs:adv. 1 • support. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the object is supported via the action indicated by the verb. 2 • firm (result). Gram: Result suffix indicating that the object is caused to become firm as a result of the action indicated by the verb or varieties of deciduous hardwood tree with distinctive, spiny base and peripinnate, schaflura-like leaves, berries yellow and gingko nut-sized, used for matchsticks and plywood. At least one variety has bright red flowers. n. wooden pole; length of pole cut from a tree, as for use as a pillar. n. tree stump; stump of a `hɨɨtak `təhɨɨ vt. make firm by pounding vt. 1 • make something `hɨɨtuu tree. as a blade handle. `mohɨɨ firm. `hɨɨtuu-tain 2 • encourage, as argument or fight. in an n. variety of mushroom growing near tree stumps, possibly chanterelle. n. variety of fish, `hɨɨtuu-rakik `hɨɨkaa n. variety of plant/tree, the flowers from which bloom about March-April and are used in the “moopin” festival. black and similar to “tɨŋɨr”, very slow-moving and often stable in deep water. `hɨɨtə n:time. eighth moon cycle of `hɨɨkuk `hɨɨko n. bark; skin of a tree. Var: hiiko (P). n. toilet; urinal; place for urinating. `jasi-`hɨɨko ‘urinal’. n. `hɨɨkoo wooden skewer, the year, roughly mid-August to mid-September. Traditionally identified as the time when the river waters are at their highest. Usage: may be used to refer to the international calendar month of September. 318 `hɨɨdaa `hɨɨmaa-tagnam `hɨɨdaa `hɨɨdii n. stick. n. 1 • juvenile tree; young tree, of any variety. 2 • offshoot; off-shooting branch, variety. See: `hɨɨnə ‘tree’; `hɨɨbo ‘canopy’. `hɨɨpik mithun mithun pen. n. enclosure; as a branch which is growing/emerging from a parent branch. `hɨɨpin `hɨɨpoo tree. n. variety of lime citrus. n. log; trunk of a felled Usage: (P). hɨɨnam live life; progress through a lifespan or live through a given duration of time. 1 vi. `hɨɨpɨr n. tree root. See: raapɨr ‘tree root’. n. vt. live one’s life. `ŋok hɨɨnam `hɨɨpɨr-`hɨɨmaa `hɨɨpə root, in `əm al `bə hɨɨrə ku. ‘I’ll live my life well.’ general. Usage: (P). n. wood, viewed as a raw material. ace. See: `gɨɨdin-`hɨɨbaa hɨɨnam 2 Var: hiinam (P). vt. urinate. Gram: Usually occurs together with associated noun “`jasi” ‘urine’ `yas `hɨɨbaa `hɨɨbo `hɨɨlɨɨ `ə. ‘I have to pee.’ ‘successful’. n. tree canopy; tree, construed as an interior space. Usage: usu. occurs in compound. See: `hɨɨnə-`hɨɨbo ‘plant’. `hɨɨgom Var: `hɨɨgom-`hɨɨyom; `hiigom (P). vi. urinate improperly; urinate in a place other than where one is meant to, as in one’s trousers, or inside the house. `hɨɨbo-`ɲoree `hɨɨbo-`ɲolɨɨ hɨɨnam 3 vt. sludge through; trudge Neofelis ‘elaborately-designed wildcat’. n. clouded leopard. nebulosa. See: `ɲoree through; walk carefully through mud or water, as when it is easy to fall; cross an area by walking. hittum ə! `hɨɨl `induu `bə `rɨduu. ‘Wah, what mud! We’ll just have to trudge through it.’ Var: `hɨɨb-ɲolɨɨ. n. variety of large wildcat, possibly a variety of leopard, reddish in colour. 1 `hɨɨmaa nce. sacrificial tree; tree or `hɨɨnam press, as when pressing two things together or stopping up a gap. vt. vt. plug. `okko `hɨɨtuml trees felled for a particular ritual purpose, such as a wedding. `hɨɨmaa-tagnam ‘to cut a tree for ritual purpose’. `hɨɨtum `hɨɨnə `hɨɨmaa at `kee. ‘Plug it with “`oko” leaves.’ n. plant; tree. n. creeping root. Usage: (P). See: raamaa ‘creeping root’; `hɨɨpɨr-`hɨɨmaa ‘root’. 2 nce. `hɨɨmaa-tagnam cassava. `hɨɨnə-iŋin Syn: `hɨɨj-iŋin. `hɨɨnə-`hɨɨbo n. plant, tree or bush of any relatively sizeable ritual of tree-splitting in preparation for a mithun sacrifice, in which a tree is split down the centre and a sacrificial platform is made from it. v. 319 `hɨɨyaa `hɨglap `hɨɨyaa `hɨɨrek `hɨɨrə n. rotten wood. n. banyan tree. `hɨɨhee-rabee tree. n. fruit-bearing n. 1 • platform built among `hɨkɨr n. cold; coolness. the branches of a tree used to wait in ambush for an animal (most often a barking deer). of a variety of fruit-bearing trees which animals will visit, which can be used as an ambush platform. `hɨɨrə-tonam ‘to wait in a tree in ambush’. 2 • any adj. feel cold; feel cool; get goosebumps. `hɨgɨ `hɨɨluu Var: sɨgɨ; higu; hɨgu; higi (P). dem. this one. Gram: Speaker-proximate demonstrative used to refer to an individual which is closer to the speaker than to the hearer, or which is currently being discussed in a conversation. May also be used to refer to places. `hɨgɨ n. grove of hardwood trees. `hɨɨluu-raaluu n. virgin forest; untouched jungle; jungle in a natural state, with thick and diverse vegetation, through which it is very difficult to walk. n. variety of fruiting tree, `na `ŋok namm ə. ‘This one’s my house.’ `hɨg ɲii `hɨgɨ `yəə `bəree? ‘Who is this here guy?’ hɨgɨr-dolom helper. n. caretaker; nurse; `hɨɨlum or the fruit. When ripe, yellow, apricot-sized, firm and crispy with sour-bitter taste. vt. take care of someone; look after someone; nurse someone; sympathize for someone’s suffering and try to help them. hɨgnam hɨɨlo January. Usage: (P). See: `aglo ‘January (L)’. n:time. n. variety of hardwood tree, alder-like, very straight and hard, used for logs and as hardwood for house construction. n. variety of very large, `hɨɨlok vt. thresh (rice) underfoot, 1 by human or cattle power. ŋo `ammom `hɨgduu. ‘I’m threshing paddy (underfoot).’ vt. track an animal, as 2 when hunting. `hɨg `cəə `na `ŋok hɨktər ə. ‘This is exactly the point where I stopped tracking (because the trail disappeared).’ hɨgnam `hɨɨləə massive and heavy tree. hɨgnam `hɨɨl-baabo n. variety of tree used for firewood; bark used for rope. Distinctive, Braille-like bark, with long narrow leaves. Var: `hɨɨsə (P). n. fruit-bearing tree. Usage: in Pugo, v:c.arg. cough. Gram: 3 Generally occurs with associated noun “ɨhɨk” ‘cough’ ɨhɨk-hɨgnam ‘to cough’. hɨgyaa n. cough; cold; rheum. `bɨɨ `hɨɨhee hɨgyaa `gəduu. ‘He has a cough (as a disease).’ has a sense of an area of trees to be used as a hunting focus, because animals will come to visit the trees. hɨgyaa-taakaa `hɨglap n. virus; contagious illness. n. ritual flute complex worn by a “`ɲibo” around his 320 hɨci həənam torso, adorned feathers. with n:poet. hornbill earth. the morning immediately preceding the time of speaking. hɨci Var: hɨsi (P). Usage: Goŋku. `hɨrə n. foreign particles in food; `hɨɲɨɨ -`hɨr n:time. this year. unwanted debris that gets into one’s food. vs:adv. interesting; impressive; striking. Gram: Manner suffix indicating that the underlying object of a transitive verb (which occurs as subject) has interesting, striking or elaborate qualities in terms of the action indicated by the verb. Often used as an alternative to “-`ken” when referring-to masculine qualities (as opposed to feminine). Not generally used with intransitive verbs. adj. 1 • hunky; manly. hɨrjek hɨrnam n. shavings; scraps leftover vt. strip bark of relatively from stripping bark. small size. `apin `əm `hɨrlen rə ~ hɨrpuu rə. ‘(I’ll) strip off the bark ~ strip it clean.’ hɨsə n. ambush platform. Usage: (P). See: `karə ‘ambush platform (L)’. `həəguu `kaahɨr 2 • funny to see; interesting to watch. `kaaken `jaamaa `lacin, `kaahɨr boolo `əgə `na. ‘Although you may not be handsome, if you’re manly it’s enough.’ Var: raayɨɨ (P). n. 1 • core of a matter; substance of speech; root of a problem; main or primary principles of a topic. agom `əm `həəguu kaamaa `doob `meɲyoo `kaa. ‘Don’t say things which don’t have any substance to them.’ 2 • root. Gram: In Galo grammar, term denoting that portion of a word which is its heart, core, or base, from which most or all of its meaning derives. Roots have an extremely important status in Galo, and depending on the root type may be used more or less productively. Types of highly productive roots include verb roots, lexical suffixes, classifier roots, numeral roots, human proper name roots, and monosyllabic adjectival roots. Less productive root types include common noun and adjective roots, with a large number of noun subtypes being formed according to completely unproductive patterns. `tahɨr adj. funny, interesting or exciting to hear, of a story e.g. `abbɨɨ. `tahɨr `ə, `əi. ‘Wow. That (story) was really cool, eh.’ Var: `hɨyum (P). n:time. `hɨrum tonight, i.e. the night immediately to follow the time of speaking; this evening. `hɨrum-`allo `hɨrum-`hɨro Var: `hɨyum-`allo (P). n:time. the near future; soon. Var: `hɨyum-`hɨlo (P). n:time. these days; recently; in recent times; lately. `hɨrum-`hɨr `gə `kaat `bə aanam `ləgaa `bə al `ruudoo. ‘Thanks for coming to see me recently.’ həənam vt. 1 • tug; grasp, gather and tug with fingers as when pulling hair. adum həər `əm `aci `duu. ‘It hurts if you pull my hair.’ 2 • drag on a cigarette; inhale on `hɨro Var: `hɨr. n:time. this morning; 321 `həəpɨr `həmbə a cigarette. `həmbə `həəpɨr n. protrusion from the back or neck of an animal, such as the mane of a horse or chicken or the tailfin of a fish. this (thing which is located nearer to the speaker then to the hearer). `ŋom `cin `həmb `rɨn go maji `lakee. ‘Get me one like this also.’ pro. 2 • like 1 • like həku-`haa and ‘tea’. n. tea and suchlike; tea that sort of thing. Usage: wordplay variant of “`haa” `həkə dem. 1 • these things, which this (thing which is currently under discussion or which is about to be mentioned). `həmbə `ŋun ager `hɨm `rɨŋam kaaku. ‘We finished the work like this.’ are nearer to the speaker than to the hearer, or which are currently being discussed in a conversation. 2 • this sort, of thing which is nearer to the speaker than to the hearer, or which is currently being discussed in a conversation. `hək `am `həkkəm `moodii `lo `ŋun `ləduu. ‘This here sort of paddy, we usually plant (it) on the mountain.’ `həkə `cəə `nago lagi bee. ‘I wanted one exactly like this.’ əmnamə, `həkkə...`kaanek doo `əmla `yukə. ‘So, this sort of thing is really ugly, they say.’ `həkkə yaakaa go `kaaduu. ‘There are many of these sorts of things.’ of. Usage: Hesitation word, used when pausing or trying to think of a particular word. `opoo kaamaa `rəm, `ŋun...`həkə `duu...`aɲɨɨ-`as `duu. ‘If we don’t have any rice beer, we’re...you know...we’re ashamed.’ 3 • sort Həcək-`Puumii `həɲəm name. name of a place in lower East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. n. large amount; a ton; a lot. `bəlaa `həɲəm go `lakaa! ‘What a ton of jackfruits!’ 322 a across (breadth) English-Galo Index (in English alphabetical order) A a art. go - a absorb vt. `ɲomlɨk Accipiter n. dookoo-`koocik a lot (frequency) vs:adv. -ben a lot (quantity) n. məənam Aalo (Along) name. Aaloo abbreviated vs:adv. -cek abdomen n. neppə Abessive pcl. `ləə Ablative pos. `lokə able vs:adv. -`lak able to vs:adv. -`laa able to affect all vs:adv. -nin Abo Tani name. Abo Tanii Aborichthys n. `riihor abort vs:adv. -kə about to vs:adv. -`ta abrade vt. `nəryɨɨ absolutely vs:adv. -`ruu gentilis acclimatize v:c.arg. `mɨrnam accompaniment vs:nzr. -mə accompanying vs:adv. -mə Accusative case marker pros. -m pos. `əm Aceros nipalensis n. `pɨhik achieve vs:adv. -`pɨɨ Achievement suffix vs:asp. -daa acquaintances n:expr. `ajen-`amen Acridotheres tristis n. `pilam across vs:adv. -`boo vs:adv. -rap across (a threshhold) vs:adv. -`pek across (breadth) vs:adv. -poo 323 act (as though) alive act (as though) vie. `rɨnam Actinostemma n. `kobuu-`məəkuu aflame vs:adv. -nu afraid vt. boho after adv. `kookɨɨ `bə after (x, y) pos. `əm after that dem.pos. `ogo afterbirth n. `teɲci afternoon n:time. `kojjo afterward adv. `kookɨɨ `bə aftosa n. `ləbok again vs:adv. -`kur suffix vs:adv. -`dii pcl. dada pcl. da tenerum Action nominalizer vs:nzr. -nam active vi. `lomnam actually vs:adv. -jaa pcl. ɲoo pcl. `ruu adamant adj. akii-arii adapt v:c.arg. `mɨrnam additionally vs:adv. -taa Additive concessive vs:nf. -gərə adept (priest) vi. jɨgnam adhere vt. `yegnam Adi n. `adii adjective n. `koorɨɨnam-`gomcɨr adjust vt. `moden vs:adv. -`den against vs:val. -kaa Agaratum n. ɨɨ-`namyaa coryzoides aggregate vt. `mokum agitated adj. akər-doomər ago n:time. kojjuu adv. kojjuu adult n. `otə adultery vt. `yomur advance (foot) vi. danam Adverbializer pos. `bə advice n. `dooyɨɨ advise vt. `dooyɨɨ vt. `meɲcɨɨ agree vt. `tolɨk vt. `meɲjup aha! int. `acco! aircraft n. roodə airplane n. roodə alcohol (neutral) n. oi alert vi. darnam algae n. `taji-`rooɲo algae (on stones) n. `lɨɨmik alimony n. `paktəm alive vi. turnam adj. ərəə Aethopyga saturata n. apoo-jɨrjoo affix n. aatəm vt. yəgnam affixed vs:adv. -gap affordable adj. homə afire vs:adv. -nu 324 alkaline ankle tendon alkaline adj. bumbə-`lumlik all n:qual. `naruu vs:adv. -ŋin n:qual. `appɨɨ vs:adv. -ŋam n:qual. `takam n:qual. `buppɨɨ vi. rənam amazing adj. `ədɨɨ Amblonyx n. horam cinereus concolor Amblyceps spp. n. tamə ambush platform n. `karə n. `hɨɨrə all (of them) n:qual. `buppaa all kinds n. `nəgɨɨ-`nəgɨɨ all night long vs:adv. -tuu allergenic vi. `rɨci alligator n. `hormen Allium n. `talap allow vs:val. -`ko alone vs:adv. -raa n:qual. `aken amongst vs:val. -min amulet n. təkom anal hair n. `yuumə ancestors (recent) n:kin. `anə-abo ancestry n. `nenko anchor (of a blade) n. `ləkoo ancient times n. `korum ancients n. `korum and cnj. `laa vs:nf. -`laa along vs:adv. -`yar along the way vs:adv. -pek aloof vi. `rɨraa also pcl. `kom pcl. `cin pcl. dada vs:nf. -`laacin and (so) cnj. okkə and (then) cnj. okkə and so on dem. `bulu v. pa- angered vs:adv. -`lee angry vt. marnam vt. `agnam alter vt. `moden vs:adv. -`den alternatingly vs:advs. -`ko...-pek although vs:nf. -`laacin vs:nf. -gərə cnj. daram pcl. -`dakkom vs:nf. -`dakkom angry at vt. `aglɨɨ Anguilla bengalensis n. ŋobə angular adj. `pordɨr animal (variety) n. `horci animal (wild) n. homen n. `mootum always vs:adv. -`yar vs:adv. -`bəə animal sacrifice n. `yɨɨdum ankle tendon n. `ləo am cop. ə 325 anklet arrest anklet n. `ləmen anklet (brass) n. `rokkee anklet bangle n. `riilum anniversary n. `doaa-`kaaji aplenty vs:adv. -kaahi aplomb vs:adv. -`jɨɨ appease vt. labnam (death) appeasement n:poet. pəkaa-yuule ceremony annoyed adj:expr. tɨkɨp-takap annoying adj. atup-apen answer vt. `menrɨk vs:val. -rɨk vt. `menrɨk appreciably vs:adv. -`jɨɨ approximate adj. baayɨr vt. məəcək April n:time. lukɨɨ aqua adj. `yajee Arborophilia atrogularis n. `pɨmuu Arborophilia rufogularis n. `pɨmuu arc n. `googee archer support ring n. `tarək are cop. ə area n. `ayap n. `peeləə ant n. `taruk ant (variety) n. `ruksɨr n. `paagii n. `baabuk n. `rugdam-`paatə n. `rukcɨɨ-meelɨɨ n. `rukcɨɨ ant nest n. `taruk-`rukpum Anterior suffix vs:asp. -ee anthill n. `taruk-`diicup anus n. `eeyuu any pro. `yoo anymore vs:asp. -ku anyone pro. `yəə anything pro. `yoocin anyway dem. `əgə cnj. əmnamə cnj. əmbə-rɨnamə Areca catechu n. tamul areca nut n. tamul argue vi. cənam arm n. alak arm (not including hand) n. lakpoo arm hair n. `lagmə armlet n. lagbuu n. `takaa-lagbuu armour n. `hotam armpit n. kuurɨɨ arm-wrestling n. lagdaa anywhere pro:int. `yoolo apart vi. bəgnam vs:adv. -rik adj. acəə tɨrkaa hinam aroma n. `amuk around (something) vs:adv. -goo arrest vt. `henam aperture n. `uukoo n. aruu 326 arrive attune arrive vs:adv. -`pɨɨ vt. `pɨɨnam at (something) vs:val. -kaa vs:val. -`gəə pos. lo pos. `bə arrogant adj. adɨk-ako arrow n. `upuk arrow (tipped) n. omo Artocarpus heterophyllus n. `bəlaa Arundinaria manii n. `tajɨr as (while) adv. `rəmo `paala pos. `bə at (a mentioned time) dem.pos. `ogo at (a past time) dem.pos. `ogo at (downward) dem.pos. `bolo at at (far (far away, away, downward) same level) dem.pos. `bollo dem.pos. al`loo as a group vs:adv. -`ɲaa as for (x…) pcl. da as though (something were the case) vs:nzr2. `bə as well pcl. `cin pcl. dada vs:nf. -`laacin pcl. ŋur at (far away, upward) dem.pos. `tollo at (nearer to you than me) dem.pos. `ogo at (same level) dem.pos. `alo at (that point) dem.pos. `ogo at (the time when) pos. `bə at (upward) dem.pos. `tolo at (very far away, same level) dem.pos. `aluu ascend vie. `caanam ash n. `micco n. `məco n. taco ashamed adj. `aɲɨɨ-`aso ashpit n. `mippum Asiatic snake head n. talo ask vt. `takaa Assamese n. okomiaa n. okomiaa at (very far, upward) dem.pos. `toluu at last vs:asp. -ku at once adv. `ləken `ə at wit’s end adj. alik-aek atop vs:adv. -ten attach vt. yəgnam vs:val. -`gəə assemble vt. `ranam Assertive pcl. da assign vt. parnam assist vs:adv. -gur asssistant (to priest) n. `boo asthma n. `haguu attain vs:adv. -`paa Attainment suffix vs:asp. -pa attract vs:adv. -yap attraction n. muugo attribute vt. `menna attune v:c.arg. `mɨrnam 327 August balance August n:time. `hɨo aunt (maternal, elder) n:kin. `motə aunt aunt (maternal, (maternal, second) younger) n:kin. moroo n:kin. moii awake vi. uunam vs:adv. -uu away vs:adv. -`len vs:adv. -ee vs:adv. -`aa away (from others) vs:adv. -ɲoo away (result) vs:adv. -`pak awhile adv. `kojo awhile ago n:time. kojjuu awl n. lajɨr axe handle n. gɨɨkoo axe head n. `əgɨɨ aya! int. ayyəə! int. `ətəə! aunt (paternal) n:kin. abo n:kin. abo-`ɲijɨr aunt-in-law (elder) n:kin. `motə aunt-in-law (second) n:kin. moroo aunt-in-law (younger) n:kin. moii aura n. `amɨr n. `amɨr-`amo auspiciously vs:adv. -gam avoid vt. `yəənam vi. kennam (2) avoid (for taboo reasons) vt. arə B baby n. `uŋŋaa back n. uugɨɨ vs:adv. -`kur vt. rɨɨnam n:rel. `kookɨɨ n. gurbə - b backpiece (large) n. paatuu n. cəpaa bacon n. `diilɨɨ bacteria n. tacɨɨ bad (to do) vs:adv. -`nek Badis badis n. yacəm-cəmpə bag n. munaa Bagarius bagarius n. ŋorik bake vt. baanam bake (in earth) vt. `yɨɨbum bake (in parcel) vt. pamcəə balance vi. pennam (1) back and forth vs:advs. -`ko...-pek back to back vs:adv. -`kur backbite vt. punam vi. hipo backbone (lower) n. `ɲocəə backpack n. `raacəə backpack (insulated) n. `raraa 328 balanced banana leaf balanced vi. `kuudaa hinam balcony n. `koodaa n. `nuugaa bamboo container n. `duutup n. duukam bamboo container (variety) bald adj. tubbin bald spot adj. tuptar ballad n. ɲɨɨtom balloon n. `pumpaa balls-up n. `rɨmur-`rɨkee bamboo n. `əə bamboo n. `tajɨr-`jɨrlək n. `duukii n. `hilək bamboo fragment n. `ərtak bamboo n:expr. `apuk-`aluk fragments bamboo grove n. `əluu n. `ətɨɨ n. `ərɨɨ (feathered) bamboo husk n. `əə-akuk bamboo mug n. tɨrkak bamboo pith n:expr. `apuk-`aluk bamboo plate n. `paakuu sliced) bamboo section n. uduu bamboo section (including knot) n. atəə n. `atəə bamboo (fermented, diced) n. iikuu bamboo bamboo (fermented, (fermented, powdered) n. `iiyup n. `iipee bamboo (immature) n. iipaa bamboo (inner flesh) n. `ahee bamboo (mature) n. `ətor bamboo (middle-aged) n. `əpaa bamboo (old) n. `əko bamboo (variety) n. `əso n. `ənɨɨ n. `taok n. `bojɨɨ n. tabo n. `əjo n. `tajɨr n. tabum n. `əbum n. `əpo bamboo shoot (sliced) n. `kuupee bamboo strip n. tarə n. `peecəə-tarə bamboo strips n. `dɨrci Bambusa khasiana n. tabum Bambusa pallida n. `əso Bambusa tulda n. `əjo Bamrusa tulda (grove) n. `jotɨɨ banana n. `kopak banana (variety) n. koluu n. `kodum bamboo barrier (thick) n. ɨcɨr bamboo chips (fermented, dried) n. `iipə banana flower n. `paapuk banana grove n. `pagluu banana leaf n. `pagnə 329 banana tree (heart) be banana tree (heart) n. `koŋee bang onom. təkk bang! expr. bugrak bangs n. `dumpii bank n. rɨɨyɨr bank (of a river) n. luuyɨr n. `buuyɨr barricade (result) vs:adv. -cɨk barrier n. `hotam n. `arum barrier (to hand extension) n. iitup Basar name. Baahar base (of a pole) n. `nərɨɨ base (of heap/hill) n. `lətɨk base of a road n. `bəkoo basement n. nampə-`rikoo bask vi. iinam basket (large, conical, densely-woven) n. `igin basket (variety) n. `oci n. eken n. dohi-`giɲci n. əbar n. `barci n. kuulə n. `maci n. `cuucak banyan n. `hɨɨrek banyan (large) n. `rettə banyan (variety) n. `remmin banyan grove n. `rellum baptism n. `nəɨr bare vs:adv. -puu vs:adv. -bin adj. `aŋin barely vs:adv. -`hik barf vt. banam barge vt. tubnam Barilius bendelisis n. `orpuu bark vi. `pɨnam n. `hɨɨkuk n. paapee n. `cuukaa n. `poa n. `giɲci bark (bamboo, outer) n. `alik bark (barking deer) vi. `umnam bark (of tree) n. akuk barking deer n. `hodum barking deer buck n. `dumbo barking deer doe n. `dumnə barking deer skin n. `dumpin barrel (of gun) n. nolii barren vi. `rugnam adj. `nəpoo basket (variety, winnowing) n. opo bastard n. `ikii-hobee n. `uii bat n. tapen Batasio n. ordə-gaaloo batcave n. tapen-penruu bathe vt. hunam baton n:clf. apaa Bauhinia blakeana n. `ogok be vi. rənam barricade vt. `rumnam 330 be careful! belch cop. ə vi. pognam be careful! int. yəcu be there (attached) vi. `dagnam be there (contained) vi. `dagnam be be there there (human, (human, permanent) temporary) vi. doonam vi. `duunam vt. dəmnam beating stick n. `kəlak beautiful adj. `kaaken because n:rel. `ləgaa `bə cnj. `əmlaa beckon vs:adv. -yap vt. gaayap be there (non-human) vi. doonam be there (sitting) vi. `duunam bead n. `tadok bead (variety) n. `dogmin n. `dognə beckon (animal) vt. ɲoonam bed n. doopə n. `doogəə bedbug n. tabaa bedroom n. `yupko bedtime n. `yubdɨ ~ `yubdə bee n. taŋik-tao bee (variety) n. `itə n. tao n. `oi-ɲɨgmaa n. `taɨr n. ilo-`pumpaa beak n. iibuu beam (roofing) n. mɨɨsɨr n. robə beam (supporting) n. `pajoo n. `kətəə bean (long) n. peeren bear n. hottum vt. bəənam bee (varity) n. hitum-`gaalum beehive n. ilo-`pumpaa n. `pumpaa bear (child) v:inc.arg.O. `ao bəənam vt. `onam vi. `garnam beeswax n. `yɨrken beetle n. `eepik-cunik beetle (variety) n. cuuɲi n. təəkom-`pətək bear (fruit) vi. gubnam vi. `heenam bear (variety) n. `tumcik bear den n. hottum-tumruu beard n. `nammə bearing n. bəəduu-`opoo bearskin n. `tumpin beat vt. pəənam adj. `aŋ-`alaa before vs:adv. -goo adv. `məroo-`kenloo befriend vt. `ajen beg vt. `konam behalf vs:adv. -raa belch vi. `dəərə 331 belief bird (variety) belief vs:adv. -tin believable adj. `acen believe vt. `tajinam belittle vt. `meɲyoo bellows tube n. midduu belly n. akii belly button n. kiinə belonging n. `yaraa belongings n. bəənam-gənam below n:rel. compɨk belt (bronze disc) n. ugii belt (variety) n. uuk n. `paak n. teelo betelnut husk n. tamul-mulkuk betelnut mixture n. `halii betrothed (woman) n. ɲaŋgoo between n:rel. `peŋkoo n. `ləpaa beyond vs:adv. -pok bias n. məəpee big adj:mono. -`tə adj. `attə adj. kai big cat n. homen big game n. `hodum-horə big toe n. `lənə bind vt. ognam vt. leenam vt. eenam vt. yəgnam vt. gamnam belt (variety, brass discs) n. `oɲop bench n. `duugəə bend vt. kərnam bend (knees) vi. `nuunam beneath n:rel. compɨk Benefactive suffix vs:val. -ji benefit n. `ləgaa bent adj. pakər vs:adv. -`kuu adj. `pakup adj. `paguu adj. `pakuu bind (skirt) vt. cəgnam bird n. pətaa bird (variety) n. `pɨhik n. `pilam n. dookoo-`koocik n. pɨrɨk n. `picik n. pərəə n. pɨtin n. apoo-jɨrjoo bent out of shape n. dookoo n. `culluu-kaguu n. abo-kornoo n. `kɨrci n. dɨcɨɨ-pətaa n. pəjək n. doolo-taaci n. `pudur adj:expr. `pordɨr-`porci berry n. `ahee beseech vt. `cənam best adj. `pɨhɨr betelnut n. tamul 332 birth pains blade handle n. `gaaree n. `rɨgbin-`taakə n. pəgaa n. taakuu n. `pəŋum n. `kɨlum n. cuurii n. hojuu n. kɨar n. pəkam n. `pɨrsin n. `kɨji n. takoo-paapuk nce. takoo n. `kookek n. `ɨtɨɨ-`tɨɨtɨɨ n. `pɨmuu n. `pokok n. `belloo n. `puruu n. bet-curum n. ləəgoo vt. `ŋamnam vt. `gamnam bits and pieces n. ajji-arii bits-and-pieces n. aɲɲii-acci bitter adj. `cakku adj. `kaacak blab vt. `menkee `menee blabber vi. jəənam black adj. `yakaa adj. `mɨrkə adj. `kayaa v:c.arg. `kaanam adj. `yakə black (deep) adj. `yakɨɨ black hair n. `dumkə black panther n. homen-`ɲokə blackbird n. `tətə-`beenə blackbreasted n. apoo-jɨrjoo n. yamdɨɨ-polɨɨ n. nanoo-`piiroo n. `kaabee n. bettum n. `kɨkoo n. `moodii-bekko n. poduu-pomoo n. cɨrum-nabbuu n. pɨmə sunbird blackbrowed tree pie n. `pokok blackcrested yellow bulbul n. `moodii-bekko blackened adj. `mɨrkə blackheaded shrike n. dɨcɨɨ-pətaa blackie name. `Mekkə name. Tukkaa birth pains n. `oci bit n:clfq. ajek n:qual. aɲɲii blackmouth n. acaa-`kayaa bladder n. `hurup n. `hurpo bit by bit vs:advsr. -nii...-naa adjs:der. -gam blade (blunt side) n. `agɨɨ blade (flat side) n. `rogbar blade anchor n. `ləkoo blade handle n. `rogɨɨ bitch n. `kiinə bite vt. tiinam 333 blame both blame vt. `menna vt. `meŋgaa boat n. `uluu bob (head) vt. baanam bob (knees) vi. `nuunam bobbin n. `tapin body n. aɨɨ body (animal) n. ador body odor n. `naŋkɨr boil vi. unam n. ɨlə n:expr. `abuk-`aruk bland adj. `harcek blanket n. `eemu blaze n. `məgu bleed (nose) v:c.arg. `dɨɨnam blind adj. ɲɨgmaa blind person n. `ɲɨkpam blink vi. ɲɨgyap vi. ɲɨktap-pootap blistered adj. `ɨbuu bloat vi. goonam block vs:adv. -tup blood n. `ii bloom vi. puunam blow vt. minnam (2) vi. minnam boil (to cook) vt. `umnam boil over vi. `piipok vi. `piinam boil up vi. `piicaa boil water vt. cɨrnam bold vi. məəcək boldly vs:adv. -cək bond with vt. `ajen bone n. aloo bonnet n. nappaa booger n. `pumkam redstart boom! expr. puhuu boost (someone’s spirits) vt. jognam (2) blow out vt. `mippak bludgeon vt. `dɨɨnam blue n. `jee adj. `yajee blueheaded n. nanoo-`piiroo blunt vs:adv. -`pur n. `nappur adj. `nappur border (of an object) n. iɲyɨk border of a rice field n. `hipəə bore vt. pinnam (2) Bori name. `Borii boring adj. loobak borrow vt. narnam Bos gaurus n. `baamin both n:qual. `aɲi-bup`pɨɨ blunt (by smashing) vt. `pəəpur boar n. horə boar (male) n. irom boar sow n. `ranə boast vi. cəənam boastful adj. adɨk-ako 334 both sides breeding fowl n:qual. `aɲi n:qual. `aɲi-bup`paa brand (livestock) vt. `ɲeruu `monam brass bowl (variety) n. `malo brass platter (variety) n. amee brass platters n:expr. amee-ayee brave adj. `puktə bravery n. `puktə breach v:c.arg. gognam vs:adv. -bɨk n. deegok n. apə n. apoo both sides n. cələə-cəhak bother vs:advsr. -dik...-ik bother (someone) vt. `mendik `menik bottle n. botor bottle gourd n. `cugrii boulder n. `lɨɨtak n. `lɨɨtə n. `lɨɨnə breadth n. atak bounce vi. tənam vi. pognam boundary n. `arə bovine n. hoə bow n. ɨrə bow-and-arrow n. ɨrə-`upuk bow-armed adj. laggoo bowlegged adj. `ləgoo bowstring n. raek boxing (sport) vt. nɨkkaa hinam boy n. yaamee boyhood n. yaamee brace vt. tərnam bracelet (thread) n. `lagmen Brahmaputra name. `Aanə braid vt. `panam vs:adv. -yək breadthwise adj. apoo break vt. `mopək vt. tɨrnam break (down) vi. dɨrnam break (large, long) vt. dɨrnam break (long) vi. dɨrnam break (off) vt. `pennam (1) break (rest) vs:adv. -`nu break down vi. `ɲanam break off (piece) vt. cəgnam break open vt. `peŋkok breakfast n. `aro-dobek breast n. `aco breath n. doorə breathe vi. hagnam breeder n. alii breeding cow n. əlii breeding duck n. `jablii breeding fowl n. roglii brain n. `pinii branch n. agbə n. akcəə n. `hɨɨcoo brand vs:adv. -`rə 335 breeding goat buffoon breeding goat n. `binlii breeding horse n. reelii breeding mithun n. holii breeding pig n. rəglii breeze nce. dooyap brew vt. nennam (1) brew (white rice beer) vt. cinnam brother n:kin. `abɨr-yaamee (younger) brother elder n:poet. `bɨɨtə brother-in-law n:kin. `maktə n:kin. `rɨgo brother-in-law n:kin. magbo-kai (elder) (younger) (2) bridal gifts n. dorɨk-tɨɨrɨk bride price n. guuɲɨɨ n. arə brother-in-law n:kin. magbo-ayaa brother’s wife (first) n:kin. `nətə brother’s wife (fourth) n:kin. `nədəə brother’s wife (last) n:kin. `nəii brother’s wife (second) n:kin. `nəroo brother’s wife (third) n:kin. `nəkoo brow n. ɲɨktəm browbeat vt. meŋkam brown adj. `yamar brown hair n. dumlɨɨ bubble n. `apik Bubo nipalensis n. pɨtin Buceros bicornis n. pəgaa buck n. cərbo buck (barking deer) n. `dumbo bucktoothed adj. iitor bud n. arin budge vi. `rɨnə-`rɨbə buffalo n. `miɲjik buffalo (wild) n. `jɨglee buffalo cow n. `jɨgnə buffoon n. peccaa-caadɨr n. peccaa n. `yao-ootar bridge n. doloo bridge (hanging) n. hoom bridge (of the nose) n. `puŋgɨɨ bridge (rudimentary) n. `ləgo brief vs:advs. -rɨɨ...-ɲo brim (of a hat) n. `lubər bring vs:val. -gə brink adj. `akcɨk brittle adj. `urum vi. `ramnam vs:advs. -`kuu...-rə broad adj. `taktə broken (stick) vs:adv. -tɨr broken down adj. `ain-`apak brook n. kocəə-korəə n. korəə broom (fan palm) n. hampək broth n. alaa brother n:poet. cibo brother (elder) n:kin. aci brother (eldest) n. aci-kai 336 build bye build vt. `monam bulbul n. bekko bulge vi. goonam bull (old) n. `boko bullet n. gulii bumblebee n. itum-`gaalum vi. bukpik vi. `bugnam burst apart vi. bukci (-bugii) burst open vi. `bukkoo (variety) bury vt. runam bush n. yaŋgam bushel (bunch of bunches) n. peetɨr bushel (of large leaves) n:clfq. atik busy adj. `moomaa butt n. `əkoo butte n. `diicum butterfly n. yapər-`poomər buttock cleavage adj. `koobik buttocks n. naanii-`kootə buttocks n. hobee-`kootar bump vt. tubnam vt. `cərnam bump into vs:adv. -tup bunch n. `tɨkpum n. agak bunch (of bananas) n:clfq. apee bunch (of leaves) n:clf. adap bundle (of 20 sticks) n. `ŋilap bundle (of 40, sticks) n:clfq. `aro bundle (of sticks, e.g.) n:clfq. arɨk burn vi. `gunam vt. `runam (monkey) button n. `teemaa vt. `karnam vt. `karnam burn (general) vt. `motee burn (with fire, causing injury) vt. `gutee button up vt. `karcup buy vt. rənam buy the farm vi. `binnam (1) by vs:val. -`ko by (means of) pos. `gə by (way of) pos. `gə by comparison pcl. `den by oneself vs:val. -hi by way of vs:val. -naa by what means pro:int. `yoolokə pro:int. `yoogə burned vi. rinnam (1) burned (result) vs:adv. -tee burning adj. `adup n. `aluk burning sensation adj. lugluk burnt vs:adv. -`ru burp vi. `dəərə burst vi. pinnam (2) vi. dennam vs:adv. -pik vs:adv. -`buk (2) bye int. `kəə 337 cacophonous carry (lengthwise) C cacophonous adj. `tanek calabash n. `cugrii calf (adolescent, male) n. bodii calf (female, adolescent) n. `nəbuk n. `əbuk - c capable vs:adv. -`lak Capra n. `hobin Caprimulgus n. abo-kornoo indicus Capsicum n. `yaluk car n. gaarii cardamom n. talɨɨ cardamom (variety) n. `beelak n. pɨɨpaa n. `beebo calf (female, young) n. `nəjɨr calf (of leg) n. `lətə calflet n. `ləkɨɨ call vie. əmnam vt. bonam call (someone) vt. gognam call (soul) vt. yalo-gognam calm adj. `rəŋam n. `rəŋam care n. `diɲci care about vt. ayaa vt. pagnam care for (something) campaign vt. kɨnam can n. `pətup vs:adv. -`laa vt. `kaacɨɨ-`tacɨɨ careful adj. `accoo adj. kənək cane (stick) n. `baŋii cane (rope) n. ohoo cane (variety) n. `tacin n. rocɨɨ n. `tarə n. `takek n. jəyɨɨ n. `homee carefully adv. `accoo careless adj:expr. ahək-amək adj. `əmum carelessly vs:adv. -mum vs:adv. -bee vs:advs. -puk...-ree caretaker n. hɨgɨr-dolom careworthy adj. `diɲci carouse v. `janam-`gamnam carp n. ŋopii carry vt. bəənam vt. gərɨk cane tendril n. maamo canopy (of climber bush) n. hopo canopy (of tree) n. `hɨɨbo canvass vt. kɨnam cap (variety) n. `luptuu carry (lengthwise) vt. urnam 338 carry after chant (variety) carry after vt. gərɨk carve out vs:adv. -pɨk cascade vi. yagnam vi. `dɨɨnam n. naakaa centre n. `ləpaa Centropus toulou bengalis fuschlanum n. yamdɨɨ-polɨɨ cash n. `ajɨr n. `ain-`murkoo Cephalotachyum n. `taok cassava n. `hɨɨj-iŋin n. `hɨɨnə-iŋin ceremonial preparations n. `jəgər ceremony (variety) n. tago certain (that) pcl. ɲino certainly vs:adv. -`ruu pcl. `mooree cast off vt. `pagnam casual vie. `əmum adj. `accoo adj. `əmum casually vs:adv. -mum pcl. `mum adv. `accoo Ceylon ironwood tree n. nahor chafed vi. rinnam (1) chaff n. `pəmɨk chafing adj. `adup Chalcophaps n. `kɨji Chalcophaps indica n. `kɨrci chalky adj. `keebek chameleon n. `hoojɨɨ n. `hoopen vs:adv. -`məm cat n. `kurii n. mimi-`kurii catapult vt. bennam (2) cataract adj. ɲɨglo catch vt. `miɲci vt. gagnam caterpillar (variety) n. `tayup catfish (variety) n. `taek n. tamə chance (be/have a) vs:adv. -`dee change n. `ajɨr vs:adv. -`den cattle n. hoə cattle cow n. `ənə cattle herd n. ətɨɨ caught vs:adv. -`yek Causative suffix vs:val. -`mo cause n. `ləgɨɨ-`ləgaa vt. `monam change (do differently) vt. `modək vt. `rɨdək Change of State aspectual suffix vs:asp. -`dak Channa n. talo channel n. kocəə chant vt. barnam vt. beenam v. `cənam-beenam cease vs:adv. -`tuu ceiling n. `mɨɨloo chant (variety) vi. dɨnam 339 chant to chop n. `ɲogaa v. `guupə chicken flea nce. pilii chicken liver n. roksin chicken louse n. pilii-`pɨkə chicken skin n. `rokpin child n. `ao child (eldest) n. `ao-kai child (firstborn) n. bəəto child (last) n:kin. `oii n. `taɲaa yornam vt. `gaanam v. `anoo `dəənam n. `itə vt. yornam nce. `guupə vi. `garnam chant to vt. `mennam chanterelle n. aatar chaotic adj. ahup adj. ahup-ayap childhood n. `omee-`ogo childish adj:expr. `omee-`oree children n. `omə-`orə child’s child’s spouse’s spouse’s father mother n:kin. `kimbo n:kin. `kinnə char vt. mɨɨnam vt. baanam character (symbol) n. `akor chase vt. minnam (1) vt. miŋgə vt. miŋgə chase away vt. `minaa cheap (in price) adj. homə cheat vt. mənam cheat (on one’s husband) vi. ɲimə chili pepper n. `yaluk chili pepper (variety) n. `lukcɨɨ chili powder n. `luktɨr chili seed n. `lugmə chill vi. cɨɨnam Chimonobambusa n. `bojɨɨ jugnam cheek n. `mooro chef n. `ahaa chest n. `aakəə chew vt. jamnam vt. cennam n. `roo griffithiana chin n. `cokko chip n. pacək chip (of wood) n:clfq. atək chipmunk n. koocəə Chiroptera n. tapen chirp vi. `cubnam chirp (insect) vi. gognam choose vt. gagnam chop vt. təənam (2) chick n. pipi-`roo chicken n. porok chicken carrier n. pɨtɨr chicken feather n. `rogmə chicken feed n. `rokpəə 340 chop down (a tree) Classifier for days vt. poonam vt. kərnam vt. panam claim vt. `monam clan n. alii n. rumtum-alii chop down (a tree) vt. təəmap chop in two vt. pootuu chop into pieces vt. pootuu-pooyuu clap vt. cɨɨnam clap (hands) vi. `cɨɨpok clap (of the hands) n. `yapop class n:clf. adap classical language n. `goŋku Classifier Classifier for for “`igin” “əbar” baskets baskets clfqr. `ginclfqr. bar- chopping block n. dimpaa Christian n. kɨristan Chrysocolaptes lucidus n. `kaabee chuck vt. `ənam-`əpak churn vi. gurnam cicada n. ɲaaɲi Cimex n. tabaa cingle n. pason cinnamon n. riiraa circle vt. paagoo hinam n. pəgoo Classifier for a grinding’s worth of paddy n:clfq. apar clfr. par- Classifier for bamboo sections n:clf. aduu Classifier for batons clfr. paan:clf. apaa circle of friends n. `ajen-arum circling adj. yeggoo circular adj. `apə-`liilum adj. pəgoo Classifier for birds clfr. pɨClassifier for books n:clf. adap Classifier for bottles clfr. torClassifier for bound bunches of leaves n:clf. adap Classifier for bunches clfqr. peeClassifier for bundles clfqr. `roclfqr. rɨk- circumference n. iɲyɨk (of an object) circumscribe vi. iɲyɨk vs:adv. -yɨk vi. yɨggoo Circus melanoleucos Classifier for bushels clfqr. tiKClassifier for classes n:clf. adap Classifier for clumps clfqr. `tumClassifier for clusters clfqr. `lumClassifier for cords clfr. `gəClassifier for days clfr. loo- n. dookoo-`koocik citrus (variety) n. `hɨɨpin n. tahɨɨ civet n. hoin n. holəə-`taso 341 Classifier for discs Classifier for trunks Classifier for discs n:clf. `abar clfr. `bar- Classifier for mountain ranges clfr. yor- Classifier for edges clfr. bəClassifier for eggs clfr. pɨClassifier for fields clfr. rɨkClassifier for fingers clfr. cəəClassifier for fish n:clf. `anə clfr. `nə- Classifier for mouthfuls clfqr. `umClassifier for nights n:clf. `ayup clfr. `yupclfr. rum- Classifier for paces clfqr. korClassifier for pipes n:clf. abuu clfr. buu- Classifier for flat pieces clfqr. takClassifier for flat surfaces clfr. `tamClassifier for grains clfr. `cɨrClassifier for granaries clfr. huuClassifier Classifier Classifier for for for grasped groups handfuls of ten items clfqr. okclfqr. cam- Classifier for plants n:clf. anə Classifier for plates clfr. liiClassifier for pods clfr. `bukn:clf. `abuk Classifier for rice fields clfr. pəəClassifier for sections of a length clfqr. tək- hacked-off Classifier for sections of bamboo clfqr. duu- n:clfq. atək Classifier for handfuls clfqr. `yumClassifier for handspans clfqr. gopClassifier for heaps clfqr. `pumClassifier for herds clfr. tɨɨclfr. tɨr- Classifier for sections of bamboo, including knot clfqr. `təəClassifier for sets of four clfqr. huClassifier for sheets clfr. born:clf. abor Classifier for slices clfqr. jekfor higher animals Classifier for sounds clfqr. duClassifier for staffs n:clf. `arɨɨ clfr. rɨɨ- Classifier n:clf. ador clfr. dor- Classifier for homes clfr. `pinClassifier for houses clfr. namClassifier for ladles clfqr. `hukClassifier for lengths clfqr. `yarClassifier for long, thin things n:clf. ahoo clfr. hoo- Classifier for stems n:clf. `anə clfr. `nə- Classifier for sticks clfr. daan:clf. adaa Classifier for teams clfqr. parClassifier for trunks n:clf. apoo clfr. poo- 342 Classifier for types close-up Classifier for types n:clf. `abaa clfr. baa- Clerodendrum n. `oin colebrookianum Classifier for vocal durations n. `oin-`taapin clfr. `baa- clever vt. məəkii adj. ardə Classifier for vocalisms clfr. gomClassifier for volumes clfr. dapClassifier for years clfr. `ɲɨɨclaw n. laksin clay n. takam clean adj. dərək vs:adv. -kak vs:advs. -bin...-kak cliff n. arak n. `isi-`robəə cliff (sloping) n. əttam cliff (steep) n. ərak cliff edge n. `robəə climate n. mooko-`isi n. doorə-dooyap n. taləə-kodee vie. ganam clean (something) vt. `mokak clean(arch.) ace. akak clear adj. bərok adj. `paabak adj:expr. `apək-`arək vs:advs. -bin...-kak adj. `apək adj. `pəbək climb vt. hennam (1) clitoris n. `tɨɨcɨr clock n. goorii close adj. `nəci-koonii adj. `nəci vs:adv. -puu close (door) vt. cɨktum close (eyes) vt. ɲɨkcəə close (near) vs:adv. -mɨk close (the mouth) vt. `gomjup close (to target) adj. baayɨr close off vt. tumnam closed vs:adv. -tum vs:adv. -`jup vs:adv. -cup clear (a path) vt. `peenam clear (of obstructions) adj. `moomen cleared adj. abin clearing n. `moomen n. abin clearly vs:adv. -`pək pcl. `maabə vs:adv. -bək closed (door) vi. cɨktum closed (eyes) adj. ɲɨkcəə closed (mouth) adj. `gomjup adj. `naptum n. `naptum cleavage (buttock) adj. `koobik cleave vt. tagnam cleft palate adj. nabjak clench vt. pagap close-up adj. `nəci-koonii 343 cloth (fragment) come off (part) cloth (fragment) n. `jecek clothesline n. `jegaa clothing n. `ejə clothing (festival) n. `jeci-`kooree clothing (old) n. `jeku clothing (red) n. `jelɨɨ clothing (variety) n. `jeraa cloud n. `doomə clouded leopard n. `hɨɨbo-`ɲoree cluck vi. `pəjaa vi. tognam cockscrow n. porok-lugo code language n. gomraa coil vt. `lumnam coin n. `ajɨr Coix lachryma n. `taɲək cold v:c.arg. `rɨgnam adj. `aik adj. `arɨk n. `arɨk cold (feeling) n. `hɨkɨr adj. `hɨkɨr cluck (mouth) vi. dotak clump n. `alum n. `atum cold (illness) n. hɨgyaa collapse vi. `gəmnam collar n. `lɨɨyaa vt. giinam clump (of grass) n. `nəmɨɨ-`alum cluster n. `alum n. `tɨkpum n. apom n. `apum collared scops owl n. pɨtin collect vt. `urnam collect (and store) vt. `tɨkum collectively vs:adv. -pom collide vt. tubnam colour n. `amɨr coloured ace. yagoo Columba hodgsonii n. kɨar comb n. looboo vt. tubnam coagulated smoke n. `rakik coal n. `məree coat n. `jepee n. `taŋgo cob (of corn/maize) n. pəkoo cobble n. `lɨɨkap cobra n. bɨkɨɨ-bɨrɨɨ cobra (variety) n. bɨkɨɨ n. bɨrɨɨ comb (fanned bamboo) n. loohap combined vs:adv. -yom come vie. aanam come apart vi. bəgnam come close vi. aanɨk come off vs:adv. -`pen come off (part) vi. `bennam cock n:poet. polɨɨ cock-a-doodle-doo int. kokorəko! cockfeathers n. `gɨɨlɨɨ cockroach n. `takci-bəree n. `ɲoŋin-dossoo 344 come on continue come on int. `kajuu communicable disease n. `rɨlii compare vt. `koorɨɨ comparison n. `pənam competitively vs:adv. -kaahi complain vt. dɨgnam Complementizer of purpose/ intention vs:nf. -`lapə complete vs:adv. -`roo vs:adv. -`pin confidence vs:adv. -tin confluence n. `padum confused vi. ŋonam vs:adv. -`kin adj:expr. `akin-`amin adj. `dɨkin-`bogmin vi. `məəkin-`momin congested adj. `adak Conjunct perfective suffix vs:asp. -to conjunctivitis n. `ɲɨkci n. `ɲɨkci-`rɨlii completely vs:adv. -ŋam vs:adv. -den conserve vt. ruunam consider (as among) vt. habnam considerably adjs:der. -`jaa considerate adj. kənək constantly vs:adv. -`bəə vs:adv. -`yap n:qual. `təttə vs:adv. -`yar completion vs:nzr. -`roo completion (point of) vs:nzr. -`pin Completive suffix vs:asp. -ku complexion n. `amɨr compulsion n. muugo conceal vs:adv. -`hum vi. `kahi constipated adj. `eehɨɨ contagion vt. `ɲognam container n. `pətup n. `pətup-pərəə concede vt. `tonam concentrate vt. məəgap concentrate (on what one hears) vt. `tagap container (bamboo) n. `duutup n. duukam conciliate vt. labnam conclusion n. `rɨgaa Concurrent suffix vs:nf. -kopə concurrently vs:nf. -`ləə condemned man n. `ɲilee condition n. `amɨr n. amoo-`alap container container n. `hilək (bamboo, (bamboo, large) variety) n. duuhin n. `duukii container (variety) n. udum Content question marker pcl. `laa continually vs:adv. -bəə continue vs:adv. -bəə conditions n. mooko-`isi conduct n. `rɨii-`docaa 345 Continuous aspect cover Continuous aspect vs:asp. -`tuu continuously vs:adv. -ɲap vs:advsr. -də...-də vs:adv. -`ləə vs:adv. -ɲap vs:adv. -dəə vs:adv. -bəə vs:adv. -`yap corn (yellow) n. pəji corner n. `cəkoo n. abə n. cərəə corner (of a space) n. `keeɲuu cornered vs:adv. -cen cornsilk n. `pəmu corpse n. himaa corral vt. rɨɨnam correct adj. tarɨk correct (an error) vt. `menten corrode vt. donam cost vt. `laanam cot n. doopə n. `doogəə contract n. tɨkə contrarian adj. acəə contrarily vs:advsr. -cəə...-rəə vs:adv. -cəə controlled adj. `rəŋam converged adj. `padum convulse vs:adv. -den convulsively vs:advsr. -den...-ren cook n. `ahaa cook (by boiling) vt. kəənam cooked vs:adv. -`nu vi. `nunam cotton n. `tacak cough v:c.arg. hɨgnam n. ɨhɨk n. hɨgyaa cooked rice n. acin cool adj. rɨyɨɨ cool down vs:adv. -`kaa cooperatively vs:adv. -`kər copiously vs:adv. -kek copy vs:adv. -yɨɨ cord (of wood) n. `əgə core n. `həəguu n. `ləpaa count vt. `kɨ vt. habnam countenance n. `ɲipə Counterexpective pcl. ɲoo counting stick n. kootɨr countlessly adv. anin-`jaabə adv. anin-`maabə courage n. `puktə courageous adj. `puktə vs:adv. -`poo coriander (wild) n. orii-riitak n. orii cousin (maternal) n. `ɲɨo n. `ɲɨo corn n. təpə corn (brown) n. `pəmar cover vt. `poonam vt. purnam 346 cover up creep vt. `morup vt. `poorup vt. mamnam crack in the foot n. `ləgok cracked vs:adv. -tak vi. tagnam cover up vs:adv. -`lup vt. `pootum vs:adv. -`poo cracked (large, in surface) adj. deegok covered vi. `lijjup vs:adv. -pop cracked (result) vs:adv. -gok cracking (voice) adj. `lɨɨhək cradle vt. `gaanam craft vt. `pɨnam cramp (arm) n. `lakpee cramp (leg) n. `ləpee cramped adj. `apee cramped (arm) adj. `lakpee cramped (leg) adj. `ləpee crank vt. gərnam cranny n. `cəkoo crawdad n. tahum crawl vi. ŋəənam vi. ŋəmnam vi. urnam vi. ŋomnam covetous adj. yarok vt. nənam covetously vs:adv. -bo cow n. `ənə coward n. pəjək cowhide n. `əpin cowrie shell n. taen crab n. `taci crab (jungle) n. `mooci crab (variety) n. `celaa n. hobee-`ceram crack vi. dennam (2) onom. gərək vt. tagnam onom. təkk v:c.arg. gognam crayfish n. tahum crazed vs:adv. -`lee crazed (with aggression) vi. `leenam crack (in floor) n. `uugee crack (in voice) n. `lɨɨhək crack (knuckles, joints) vt. pəksi crack (knuckles, joints) vt. `pəgnam crazy vi. `munam create vt. `pɨnam vt. `pɨlen v:c.arg. `minnam vt. `pɨlen crack (large, in surface) n. deegok crack (large, long, in surface) n. deegok-talok (1) creep vi. ŋəmnam vi. maanam vi. ŋomnam crack (leg) n. `lədek crack (small, in surface) n. deggok 347 creeper curse creeper n. amaa nce. tamaa n. tarə-tamaa cruel adj. ɲilo-hodoo cruise vi. `dəbnam crumble vi. yagnam crunch onom. gərək crush vt. `ɨmɨk crush (by pressing) vt. nemmɨk crux n. `peɲcəp cry vi. kabnam vt. kabnam crest n. `dumrɨk crisped rice n. `ciŋkam crocodile n. `hormen crooked adj. pagər adj. pakər crop field n. `amdaa cropped adj. naptuu crops n. `amo-tamii cross vt. `boonam vt. rabnam cucumber n. `məəkuu Cucumis n. `məəkuu cuisine n. acin-oo cultivate vt. oonam cultivated area n. `rɨgməə cumulatively vs:adv. -`ləə cup vt. `gaanam n. pətak n. pətəə cross (on foot) vi. `koonam cross a threshhold vt. `impek cross hatch vt. `peenam crossbeam n. turgɨɨ crossbeam (breadthwise) n. urpoo crossbeam (lengthwise) n. `uryar crossed (legs) adj. pakoo-`ləpek adj. `ləko-`ləpek cup (for measuring) n. `duutup curate adj. akii-arii cure vt. `mopo vs:adv. -`po cross-legged adj. pakoo-`ləpek crossroad n. `bədum crow vi. kognam n. `agbee cured vi. `ponam curled vs:advsr. -`kum...-`ɲum adj:expr. `akum-aɲum crow (flock of) n. `aktɨɨ crowd v:c.arg. luunam n. ɲitɨɨ n:qual. atɨɨ n. ɲiluu n. luutɨr curling adj. pakər adj:expr. təkər-təmər ace. təkər curly (hair) adj. dumpər curry n. oo curse v. `cənam-beenam vt. `cənam n. `abur crowd (of monkeys) n. beetɨɨ n. beeluu 348 cursed daughter-in-law vt. beenam cut (side to side) vt. kɨɨnam cut (small with knife) vt. peenam cut (to sharpen) vt. parek cut (with great force and little aim) vt. jennam cursed adj. `abur-ae adj. `abur adj. `yabur curved adj. `təguu cut (by sliding across fixed blade) vt. `innam (2) sidearm (1) cut (with sweeping motion) vt. nagnam cut (by striking) vt. panam cut (glancing off) vt. `parek cut (in two) vt. peeci cut (result) vs:adv. -pee cut off vt. parik cut out vt. `peelen cute adj. ayaa cyclonic adj. `pooci D dab vt. `tiggap dam n. `hibok dam (base) n. `bokko dam (element) n. bai n. `lɨɨgəə n. kodap n. `baanə n. `gobə n. `yamnə n. `gogɨɨ - d dance (variety) n. `poopɨr n. ɲɨgree dandruff n. `tapar Danio n. `tapoo dao n. `orok dao (antique) n. `rokko dare vs:adv. -ak vs:adv. -`poo dark adj. kanə dark moon n. `poolo-`lorup n. `poolo-`lorup dam (head) n. `bogdum dam up vt. pətum damage vs:adv. -`pək damp adj. jɨɨjɨɨ-rəyaa adj. `juujaa-rəyaa adj. `kuucuk adj. tayum darkness n. kanə Dative pros. -`əp pos. `bə daughter n:kin. `omə daughter (last) n. `yai daughter in law’s sibling n:kin. `aŋə daughter-in-law n:kin. ɲaməə dance vt. hoonam dance (line) n. `poonuu dance (of war) n. `pajuk 349 daughter-in-law (first) Dendrocalamus giganteus daughter-in-law n:kin. `ɲamtə (first) (fourth) decide adj:expr. `acen-`aren vt. `məəpək daughter-in-law n:kin. `ɲaŋkoo decked-out adj. `buumə adj. `buumə-`raarə daughter-in-law (last) n:kin. ɲamii daughter-in-law n:kin. ɲamroo decrepit adj. `ain-`apak vi. `ɲanam (second) (third) deep adj. `uurɨɨ deer (wild) n. `cərlee deer herd n. cərluu n. cərtɨɨ daughter-in-law n:kin. ɲamdəə daughter’s husband n:kin. magbo dawn adj. paa n:time. paa n:time. paa-`tootii-`roorii n:time. `rokkom deerskin n. `hodum-`apin defeat vs:adv. -`pak vt. `mopak day n:time. aloo day after tomorrow n:time. `roə day daybreak n:time. paa-`tootii-`roorii defecate vi. `eenam defecate improperly vt. `eegom definitely pcl. `ruu vs:adv. -`ruu before n:time. `kenloo yesterday deform vt. `mopor deformed (face) adj. `moodɨr de-handle vs:adv. -huk delicious (to drink or smoke) adj. `tɨɨken dazed vi. ŋonam dazzling adj:expr. lɨglɨk-laglak adj. `kaayum-`kaaŋam dead vs:adv. -`kə deaf adj. ruuji dear name. `Kaalɨɨ dearie name. `yapii debt-clearing n. `kalor decant vt. `pɨnam vt. əənam delicious (to eat) adj. `doken Delonix brachycarpa n. `taakee demarcate vt. `diirə demolish vs:adv. -yak demon n. yapom demonstrate vs:val. -tom den (bear) n. hottum-tumruu den (of a porcupine) n. hiruu den (tiger) n. homen-menruu Dendrocalamus giganteus n. `əbum decant (solid) vt. dinnam (1) deceive vt. kubnam vt. `muur December n:time. `ratə 350 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii dig (overhand) Dendrocalamus hamiltonii n. `ənɨɨ Dendrocitta frontalis n. `pokok dense adj. `jɨɨcam dense (jungle) n. `tumraa n. yamdɨɨ detach vi. jagnam detect vt. gagnam determination vt. `ennam-kaanam detour n. bəgur dew n. ŋarsi de-weed v:c.arg. `ɨgnam de-weeder n. `ɨɨk de-weeding n. ɨɨjɨɨ dhole n. hocaa dialect n. `gomuk diarrhea adj. `eejik vi. akii-binnam vi. akii-jugnam vi. binnam dented adj:expr. `akop-`arop adj. `akop dented (result) vs:adv. -`kop vs:advsr. -`kop...-`rop depend (on something) vt. `məəgəə depend on vs:val. -`gəə depressed adj. `aluk depression n. `aluk descend vi. `togɨɨ vie. `iinam vi. tognam (2) (2) die vi. hinam vi. ŋeenam descend (lineage) vi. nennam (1) desert n. `moohen desiccated adj. `pɨtɨɨ design vt. `pɨnam designation nce. `nəmin desire vs:adv. -`lɨɨ vs:adv. -`lɨɨlɨɨ die out vi. `tɨrnam difference n. aŋo n. adək different adj. aŋo n. aŋo vs:adv. -dək adj. adək adj. `bədək despise vt. məəɲɨɨ despite pcl. -`dakkom vs:nf. -`dakkom cnj. daram vs:nf. -`laacin differently vs:adv. -`dek dig (by scooping away dirt) vt. `konam despondent adj:expr. `aŋaa-`araa destroy vs:adv. -`yaa vt. `moyaa vt. `mojaa dig (by scraping) vt. ognam vt. `dunam dig (by thrusting directly) vt. `ɲarnam destroyed vs:adv. -`jaa dig (from surface) vt. jagnam dig (overhand) vt. tagnam 351 diligent disturbed diligent adj. kənək adj:expr. `apək-`arək vt. arnam disgusting (of food) adj. `donek dish n. oo Disjunct coordinator pcl. maa Disjunct perfective suffix vs:asp. -gee Dillenia indica n. `campak dim vi. uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ adj. uucɨɨ-uulɨɨ int. `yəə-`bəree dim (time of day) adj. kanə-pɨpə-mamə dislocate vt. `moək disordered vs:adv. -por disorderly adj. ahup adj. ahup-ayap vs:adv. -hup dimly vs:adv. -cɨɨ Dioscorea composita n. iŋin-takee Dioscoria alata n. iŋin Direct perfective aspectual suffix vs:asp. -baa disorganized adj. ahup adj. ajəə adj. ahup-ayap dirt n. kodee dirty adj. alum-ayəə adj. alum-aɲəə ace. alum adj. aɲum-ahəə vs:adv. -`gek disparagingly vs:adv. -ɲɨɨ dispense with vt. `pagnam disperse vs:advsr. -cik...-ik vs:adv. -cik dirty (water) adj. `higik disable vs:adv. -cek disapprove vt. kaaɲɨɨ vs:adv. -`ək dispersed vs:adv. -jəə displace vs:adv. -ək dispose of vt. `pagnam disposed vi. gənam disrobe vt. `pinnam (2) distance n. `oodoo n. `adoo disaster n. `rɨmur-`rɨkee disc n:clf. `abar discard vt. `əpak disclose vs:advsr. -kak...-lak vt. `meŋkak distant adj. `adoo adj. `oodoo adj. `odoo `menlak discover (that) pcl. `ɲii disease v. `cinam-ramnam disease (variety) n. `kebbuk n. `polee n. `ləhok distorted adj. `adɨr distribute vt. ornam disturb vs:advsr. -jik...-mik disturbed vs:adv. -jik adj:expr. tɨkɨp-takap disembowel v:c.arg. kiinam 352 disturbing drape leg across disturbing adj. ajik-aak adj. atup-apen dogskin n. `kiipin don’t (do that)! vs:mod. -yoo Donyi Polo n. Dooɲi-`Poolo door n. ərap n. `eyap ditch n. koroo dive vi. cinnam (2) vt. `tuunam diversion (point, of a river) n. `bogbɨɨ doorjamb n. rabgur doorway n. `rabgo dorsum n. naŋko doubtlessly pcl. `ruu dough n. `ataa douse vt. `cokkap dove n. `taakə down vs:adv. -`loo down (result) vs:adv. -map downward vs:adv. -`loo vs:adv. -bok diversion (riverine) n. pəji-pəmə divert vt. pənam divert (course of river) vt. pəyəə vt. `pəlɨk divide vt. parnam divide (on width) vs:adv. -tuu divide divide along length (result) oneselves vs:adv. -ci amongst vi. `laapen hinam divine vt. `cinam divorce vt. `əpak divvy vt. parnam dizzy vi. yennam (2) adj:expr. `dɨmik-`dəmək dowry n. arə drag vt. ranam vt. həənam vt. `henam drag up vt. `racaa dragonfly nce. `taaree n. `aakii-taaɲii-`taaree do vt. inam vt. `rɨnam vt. `monam doe n. `cərnə doe (barking deer) n. `dumnə dog n. `ikii dog (female) n. `kiinə dog (hunting) n. `kiimen dog (male) n. `kiibo dog (sacrificial) n. `kiilee dog-calling sound int. `əəcu! n. hobə-taaɲii-taaɲii n. `isi-taaɲi-`taaree dragonfly (larva) n. paagap drape vt. ərnam vt. `tornam vt. `cɨrnam drape (a leg over another) vt. `pagəə drape leg across vt. `papoo 353 dream dynamic dream n. `yumii-`yumaa n. `yumaa v:c.arg. `maanam dry (using smoke) vt. `aahen dry land n. `tumpə dry out vi. `hennam (1) vi. ornam dressed-up adj. `buumə adj. `buumə-`raarə dried vs:adv. -`pə drill vt. arnam drink vt. tɨɨnam n. `isi-`opoo dry out (wound) vi. `caruk dry up vi. `hennam (1) dry-fry vt. anam Dubitative pcl. `laree duck n. `pəjap duck (female) n. `jabnə duck (male) n. `jappo duck (wild) n. `isi-`pəjap Ducula badia n. `kɨlum dumb adj. gommaa dung n. `eepik durability n. `addɨɨ durable adj. `addɨɨ during vs:adv. -ŋoohi vs:nf. -`mopaala adv. `rəmo vs:nf. -kopə drinking buddy n. `tɨɨjen drip vi. `dɨnam drive vt. dugnam vt. pərnam drive (animal) vt. goonam drive (something away) vt. miŋgə vt. miŋgə drive (something into ground) vt. gɨɨnam drive away (animal) vt. `mimpak vt. `mimpak drongo n. `oocoo drool n. `nabbee v:c.arg. beenam `paala dusk n:time. arum-`roorii n:time. kanə-popɨr-momɨr n:time. jəmɨr-jəmar n:time. popɨr-momɨr drop vt. `tonam Drosophilia n. tahuu-tayaa drought n. `hiruk-`moohen n. `hiruk dust n. pəmɨr dustpile n. mɨrlum dusty adj. mɨrlum dusty (result) vs:adv. -bum Dwarf chameleon fish n. yacəm-cəmpə drug n. `nəənə-`poonə drum n. dumdum drunk adj. tɨɨkum vs:adv. -kum drunk (from liquor) adj. tɨɨkum dry adj. `pɨtɨɨ dwelling n. `namcɨɨ dynamic vi. jənam 354 dysentery elder sister dysentery n. takɨɨ E each (one) n:qual. aken-aken each (time) n:qual. `dɨkɨɨ eager beaver n. `yɨrnə ear n. `ɲeruu ear (left) n. `ruuci ear (right) n. `ruubək ear disease (variety) n. `ruuci ear hair n. `ruumə ear water n. `ruuci-talɨɨ ear wax n. `ruupuk early adv. komci-tanii early (morning) n:time. kom`cii adj. komci adv. komci-tanii - e easy vs:adv. -`ken easy (to do) adj. `rɨken easy (to say) adj. `meŋken eat vt. donam eclipse n. `tamə economize vt. `cəbnam vt. ruunam edge n. abə n:rel. `cəəɲuu edges (of an object) n. iɲyɨk eel n. ŋobə effortlessly vs:adv. -`məm egg n. `pɨpə egg white n. pɨdin egg yolk n. `pɨmɨr eggplant n. `baayom eggplant (variety) n. kopə n. baakə n. pətaa-`baakə early morning n:time. `aro-komci earn vt. `laanam earring n. raaji-`bələə earring (variety) n. raaji n. `bələə n. `kentuu eggshell n. pɨkuk eh? pcl. `i eight n:num. `piinə eighth month n:time. `hɨo elastic vi. `jinnam (1) (footlong) elbow n. lagduu-kuurəə elder adj. `abɨɨ elder brother n:kin. aci elder sister n:kin. aɲi earth n. kodee n:poet. hɨci earthquake n. moodə-moobə earthworm n. `tador n. `dorkaa earthworm n. `dorkaa-laabuu easily done vs:advs. -`ken...-`paa east n:rel. `caagoo 355 elder sister’s husband entranced elder sister’s husband n:kin. `maktə elders n. aci-`abɨɨ eldest brother n. aci-kai eldest child n. `ao-kai eldest maternal uncle n:kin. `kɨtə eldest sister n. aɲi-kai n. aɲi-abɨɨ emote vi. `janam empty vt. hugnam empty (feeling) adj:expr. akak-alak empty result vs:adv. -`ŋaa en route vs:adv. -pek enclose vt. `purbum vt. purnam vt. `humnam elephant n. `hotə elephant (small) n. `təcuu elephant (wild) n. `təlee elephant apple n. `campak elephant apple (variety) n. `pagyoo elephant bull n. `təbo elephant calf n. `təo elephant cow n. `tənə elephant herd n. `tətɨɨ elephant skin n. `hotə-`təpin elephant tusk n. `tərəə Elephas maximus n. `hotə eleventh month n:time. lubə else n:qual. `kəbə emaciated adj:expr. akək-arək emanate (light) vi. `louu ember n. `məree ember (matchlike) n. `məcɨɨ embrace vt. `gomnam emerald dove n. `kɨrci emerge vi. karnam vi. `nennam vi. `bugnam enclosure n. luugoo enclothe vt. koonam encounter vt. kaarɨk hinam encourage vt. `mohɨɨ end n:rel. `kookɨɨ vs:adv. -tər n. tuurəə end (to a task) n. `rɨtər endanger vt. `muur endpoint vs:nzr. -tər endpoint (of a journey) n. intər enemy n. `ɲimak engage (someone in marriage) vt. `tagak engagement n. `laayap enjoy vs:adv. -cem enlarge vs:adv. -`bor vi. `tənam enormous adj. `kayɨɨ enough vi. pɨɨnam entangled vs:advs. -tup...-ci enter vie. aanam entrance n. `aako entranced vi. `runam (1) emission n. `doohuk 356 entryway exaggerate entryway n. aalam enumerate vt. `kɨ vt. habnam cnj. daram pcl. -`laacin even (numbered) n. `pumsi even (though) cnj. daram vs:nf. -`dakkom enviously vs:adv. -bo epidemic n. cilii-ramlii n. `rɨlii even more vs:adv. -`yaayaa even up to pos. golo `bə evening adj. arum n:time. arum epilepsy n. himek adj. himek epistle n. sitii equally vs:adv. -`daa equidistant adj. `garɨɨ erase vt. `mərrup erect vt. `lagdaa vt. gɨɨnam evenly vs:adv. -rum ever vs:asp. -bee every (kind) n:qual. `nəgɨɨ every (one) n:qual. `takam every (time) n:qual. `dɨkɨɨ every day adv. `loodak every morning n. `rodak every night n. `rumdak everybody pro. `buppɨɨ n. `ɲidum erect (a platform) vt. `gonam erect (penis) vi. `raanam erode vs:adv. -pɨk vi. jagnam eroded area n. `kopɨk erroneously vs:adv. -`mur Eryngium foetidum n. orii-riitak n. orii everyone n:qual. `naruu pro. `buppɨɨ n. `ɲidum escape vi. kennam (2) especially pcl. `ruu pcl. `yaaruu everything vs:adv. -ŋam n:qual. `naruu everywhere vs:advsr. -kɨk...-rɨk evildoer n. ɲilo-hodoo exact adj. tarɨk exactly vs:adv. -`cəə n:qual. `daadii pcl. `ruu esteem adj:expr. adɨk-ahɨk etcetera n:qual. `yooyoo dem. `bulu n:qual. `yoo v. pa- Eupatorium odoratum n. `daglin even pcl. -`dakkom vs:nf. -`laacin pcl. `cin exactly (like) n:qual. `cəə exaggerate vi. `meɲjok vt. `membor 357 example eye example n:clf. `abaa excellent adj. `gai excessively vs:adv. -ŋər exchange (gifts) vt. `jiko-jipek exclusively vs:adv. -cəə excrement n. `ee excrete vi. `eenam exert (strength/force) vi. tornam exhale vi. `haglen exhange vs:advs. -`ko...-pek exhaust n. `doohuk vs:advsr. -den...-ren n. `ajek expertly vs:advs. -`jek...-paa vs:adv. -kii vs:advsr. -kii...-rii explain vt. `meɲji explode vi. `bugnam express oneself vi. `janam extend (range) vi. coonam extend (the hand) vt. iinam extended adj. `ahoo adj. `yarsoo extension n. `ahoo n. acəə exhausted vs:advsr. -dɨr...-mɨr adj. `aŋ-`alaa adj:expr. adɨr-amɨr adj. `rəɲak adj. adɨr vs:adv. -dɨr Extensive pos. `bə extensively vs:adv. -kuu vs:adv. -`kɨɨ extent n. `ahoo exterior n. `agum extinct vi. `tɨrnam extinguish vs:val. -ŋik vt. miŋŋik exhaustively vs:adv. -ŋin Exhortative pcl. `dei exist vi. kaanam vi. rənam extinguish (by blowing) vt. miŋŋik extinguish (due to boiling over) vt. `piiŋik exit vi. `nennam (1) n. `nenlam n. `nenko expand vi. goonam expand (by blowing) vt. `mibbor expand (range) vi. coonam expeditious vt. `rɨhor-`rɨyor expensive adj. dam Experiential perfect aspectual suffix vs:asp. -bee extinguished vi. ŋinnam (2) vi. `tɨrnam extra vi. ŋennam (2) extract vt. hugnam vt. `bərnam extreme adj. maa`jii extremely adv. `yakkaa! extremist n. ɲilo-hodoo eye n. aɲɨk expert n. ɲikok 358 eye (left) eyes (non-folded) eye (left) n. `ɲɨkci eye (right) n. `ɲɨgbək eye crap n. ɲɨgjak-baayak eye disease n. `ɲɨkci eye white n. ɲɨkpuu eyebrow n. `ɲɨgmə eyeglasses n. aɲɨk-taluu eyelash n. `ɲɨgmə eyelid n. `ɲɨkpin eyelid deformity adj. ɲɨgjək-bərək eyes (coloured) n. `ɲɨglor eyes (non-folded) n. `ɲɨgbum 359 fabric fasten F fabric n. `galəə face n. `ɲuŋmoo vs:val. -rɨk - f vi. `yəətap fallowing field n. `moobii n. mooroo face (something vt. gərɨk or someone) n. biijɨɨ n. biiro n. kamro face down vs:adv. -kup facial hair n. `nammə fail vt. `moram vt. `rɨram vs:adv. -ram n. biikam false solomon’s seal n. acin-paarin family n. namə-rumtum n. rumtum fail (crop) vi. hugnam fail (of rice) adj. `amsuk fairie n. yapom faith vs:adv. -tin fall vi. onam fall (down) vi. `onam fall (face down) vi. `daakup fall (of tree) vi. `ŋurnam fall (off) vi. runam fall (out) vi. runam fall (over) vi. `yəənam vi. `obə vi. kubnam famine n. dɨrɨ n. hicin-domaa fan vt. yabnam n. taayap fan palm n. taək fan palm grove n. `əgluu fan palm powder n. `əgmik far adj. `odoo adj. `oodoo far away vs:adv. -`hoo fart n. `əppə v:c.arg. pəənam fashion vt. `pɨnam fashionable v. `janam-`gamnam fast vs:adv. -baa vs:adv. -baa adj. aen adj. bɨɨbaa adj. rəccə adj. rəcəə fall apart vi. `ɲanam fall apart (structure) vi. yagnam fall down vi. `oloo fall into water (result) vs:adv. -`jaa fall off (part) vi. `bennam fall over vi. tabnam fasten vt. gamnam 360 fasten (to) field (upper side) fasten (to) vt. `puulɨk fat n. au vi. jɨɨnam n. holuu fence around vt. `peggoo fence in vt. raggoo fencepost n. luugɨɨ fermentation starter n. `opop fermented rice n. `poonə fermented soybeans n. `agyaa fern nce. takaa fern (edible) n. oo-takaa fern (variety) n. `rugdɨk festival n. `mooji n. `toguu father n:kin. abo n:poet. paabo father-in-law n:kin. `ato father’s sister n:kin. abo n:kin. abo-`ɲijɨr fatigued adj. adɨr adj. `apee fatten vt. jɨɨgə fattened vs:adv. -jɨɨ fatty adj. au fawn vt. `jarɨk fawn over vi. `janam fawning adj. `ajar fear vt. boho feather (chicken) n. `rogmə February n:time. `aglo fed up vt. `ensup adj. `aŋ-`alaa fetch (water) vt. `gaanam fever vi. ramnam n. ramnam few adj:expr. `aken-`aren fibre n. `tacak Ficus hispida n. kukcoo-`looloo fiddle vt. `monam fiddlehead fern n. oo-takaa fidget vs:advsr. -`dam...-`ram field n. `hipəə n. rɨkə n. `hipəə feed (for livestock) n. `hodo feel vt. `ennam (1) vt. mamnam feel (using foot) vi. danam feel (using hands) vt. ubnam feel good vi. `gəken feel hardship vt. endɨr Felis marmorata n. `taso fell (tree) vt. `yəənam female n. `anə fence vt. ragnam field (cleared) n. `rɨgbin field (interior) n. `rɨgraa field (lower side) n. `rɨkkoo field (main crop) n. `amdaa field (mountain) n. `moodii-rɨkə field (second-use) n. rɨgaa field (third use) n. `aabə field (upper side) n. rɨgdum 361 field (virgin) fish field (virgin) n. rɨgmam field (wet) n. `isi-rɨkə field border n. `hipəə field boundary (lower) n. `rɨgii field debris (after burning) n. rɨgrom finish off vs:adv. -`roo finished vs:adv. -ŋam fire n. `əmə n:poet. `koojum fire (as iron) vt. `baɨr fire-dry vt. pamnam firefly n. `ukcɨɨ-`baalɨɨ firelight n. `əmə-`louu fireplace n. `miram n. `imik field levelling n. `moi fifth month n:time. lucɨr fig n. kukcoo-`looloo fig (variety) n. `takuk figure n. `ɲimaa figure out vt. gagnam figure out (that) pcl. `ɲii file vt. `tarnam fill vt. `pɨbɨɨ fill (with) vt. `gaanam filter vt. nennam (1) filter (for rice beer) n. `poopur filter (rice beer, large) n. `poobor filth n. `takek filthy adj. alum-ayəə adj. aɲum-ahəə fireplace (primary) n. `pintə-`imik fireplace (secondary) n. `pimmee-`imik fireplace border n. guluu fireplace shelf (lower) n. `kaatə fireplace shelf (lowest) n. kaamee n. `kao fireplace shelf (upper) n. `kaanə fireplace shelf (uppermost) n. kaɨk fireplace shelving n. `rapko firewood n. `ɨhɨɨ firewood (bamboo) n. `əor firewood (burnt) n. `mətuu firm adj. attor vi. kamnam fin n. ŋoii-alap finally vs:asp. -ku fine n. ajəə fine (large) n. guuɲɨɨ-`guutə finger n. lakcəə fingernail n. laksin fingertip n. lakcəə-`tɨtə finish vt. `rɨŋam vs:adv. -`pin vt. `rɨpin firm (reault) vs:adv. -hɨɨ firmament n. `jiimi first vs:adv. -`coo first month n:time. deecɨɨ first time vs:adv. -to vs:advs. -to...-kə fish n. ŋoii 362 fish (boiled, liquified) flareup fish (boiled, liquified) n. ŋolum fish (fermented) n. ŋoyaa fish (fermented, boiled, liquified) n. ŋoyaa-ŋolum n. `ŋopə n. yacəm-cəmpə fish innards n. ŋokii fisherman n. `isi-ɲigam fishhook n. `kərcɨr fishing line n. kəren fishing pole n. əkər fishing pole (body) n. kərəm fishtail n. `ɲolap fishtrap n. `takom fishtrap (variety) n. `ɨdɨr fist n. `laktum fit vt. `jubnam vs:adv. -`lin fish (using basket trap) vt. kunam fish (using pole) vt. ərnam fish (variety) n. naarə n. `ŋopə-pɨree n. `yɨrcoo n. ŋoruu n. ŋotup n. ŋoyoo n. `hɨɨtuu-rakik n. ordə-gaaloo n. `ŋogə n. ŋopii n. tacap-buugap nce. `ŋoraa n. ŋorik five numr. -ŋo n:num. aŋŋo n. `ŋoraa-`pakkaa n. tadoo n. `riibo n. ŋocər n. ŋobə n. tɨŋɨr n. `riihor n. `taek n. ŋorɨɨ n. `gahee n. `orpuu n. `tapoo n. `ŋomuk n. `orcəə n. talo n. `riiŋum n. tamə n. ŋoco n. `ŋapee five days ago n:time. keŋkur-aloo five days hence n:time. `tenee five times n:time. ləŋŋo five years ago n:time. keŋkur five years hence n:time. `tenee fix vt. gamnam vs:adv. -`ten vt. `moten fix (skirt) vt. cəgnam flailingly vs:advsr. -tik...-rik flake n. `mibbo n. ahɨk flame n. `məgum flap vi. jarnam v:c.arg. labnam flareup n:expr. `abuk-`aruk 363 flash (lightning) fly (variety) flash (lightning) v:c.arg. `ragnam flash flood n. `puumii flat adj. atak flat (flavour) adj. bumbə-`lumlik flat (mouth) adj. `nabjap flat (nose) adj. `pumjap flat (surface) n. `ajap flat (terrain) adj. rɨɨjoo flatland n. kodee-deerɨɨ n. arɨɨ flick vt. `lənam vt. bennam (2) vt. `pagnam flick (using tool) vt. pornam flick off vt. `pakpak flick off (water, food) vt. `pagjəə flights (of an arrow) n. poroo flint n. `məci flirt vi. `meɲjar vi. `rɨjar flatten vs:advs. -`jin...-`taa vt. rennam flit adj:expr. ajər-amər float vi. jaanam vie. `jaanam vi. runam (2) smashing) flatten (by vt. `pəəjap-`pəəyap flatten (field) vt. nərnam flatten (underfoot) vt. `tujap flatten (with weight) vt. `meɲjap flattened vs:adv. -`jap flatter vt. jognam vt. `menjoo flock (of ravens) n. `aktɨɨ flog vt. `dɨɨnam flood vt. `tumnam n. `hipuu nce. `bədək flooring n. `batak flour n. `ataa flow vi. binnam (2) flower n. apuu fluid n. alaa flute n. tapuu fly nce. tayɨɨ vi. `dəənam vt. `dəənam n. tayɨɨ-tamaa vi. jarnam flavourless adj. `harcek flay vt. dɨnam flea n. talii fleas’ nest n. talii-liihup nce. liihup flee vi. kennam (2) fleeting vs:advs. -rɨɨ...-ɲo flesh n. adin n. diɲyek flex vi. `yuunam vs:advs. -`yuu...-`yəə fly (disc) vi. `təbnam fly (variety) n. tahuu-tayaa n. `yɨɨpə-roodoo nce. `tacup flexible vi. `yuunam 364 flying fox four n. `yɨɨpii n. `tacup-`taɲup n. `tacup-`reeɲup for (the n-th time) pos. `naabə for heaven’s sake pcl. `maabə force vs:adv. -kam force (out excrement) vi. haanam forceful adj. `akum forcibly vs:adv. -kam forearm n. lagdaa forearm span n:clfq. adu forebears n:kin. `anə-abo forehead n. tupko n. tukko flying fox n. tapen flying squirrel n. `hojoo foam n. `apik fodder n. dokee fog n. aapam fog (dense) n. `mukpuu fold vt. `tumnam fold (clothing) vt. `cɨrnam folded (arms) adj. pakoo-`lakpek folded (legs) adj. `lətum food (prepared) n. acin-oo foodstuffs n. acin-ɨji-oo fool n. `otar n. peccaa n. `yao-ootar ace. `maŋaa n. yao foreleg n. `alə forepaw n. aləə n. `alə forest n. `mootum forest eagle-owl n. pɨtin forget (a fact) vt. `məəpaa maa. forget (to bring something) vt. `ɲopen foolish adj. peccaa foolish (man) adj. `taŋaa-`taraa foot n. `alə foot (of mountain) n. `lətɨk foot crack n. `ləgok foot.mortar n. dəkii foot-and-mouth disease n. `ləbok footprint n. `alə for n:rel. `ləgaa `bə pros. -`əp forgotten vi. ŋeenam fork (in a tree) n. `gorbak formless adj. `adɨr-abar fornicate vt. yonam vt. harnam fortunate vs:adv. -gam fortune n. agam forward vs:adv. -in foul (smelling) adj. `namsuu fouled up vi. `rɨmur-`rɨkee fouled-up vi. kərnam four n:num. appii numr. -pii for (purpose of) pos. `bə for (some purpose) pos. `bə 365 four days ago fully four days ago n:time. `kendaloo four days hence n:time. `roten four times n:time. ləppii four years ago n:time. `kendaɲɨɨ fours (as a counting unit) n:clfq. ahu fourth month n:time. lukɨɨ fox n. `mansuruu n. `manruu n:poet. `mandəruu from (here) dem.pos. `hokə from (near addressee) pos. `okkə from (near speaker) pos. `hokkə from (same level) dem.pos. `alokə pos. `akkə from (something currently under discussion) pos. `hokkə from (something just mentioned) dem. `əkə dem. `okə fraction nce. acci free (not busy) vi. `harsuk vi. `harsuk from (this time) pos. `hokkə from (upward) pos. `tokkə dem.pos. `tolo freely vs:adv. -`huk freezing adj. aɲcɨɨ frenzied adj. hiduk frenzy n. hiduk frequently vs:adv. -`yar vs:adv. -ben `kə front n:rel. aaboo fruit vi. liinam vi. `heenam n. `apə n. `apə-`ahee fruit (variety) n. `taktɨr n. bulum n. taguu fresh adj. `leelak adj. `leelak friend n. `ajen friends v:c.arg. `jennam (1) n. `ajen-arum fruiting adj. `apə frustrated adj. `aluk vi. `enluk frighten vs:val. -`lom frightened adj. `hoŋak frog n. tatɨk from pos. `lokkə pos. `lokə frustration n. `aluk fuck vt. `ɲarnam full vs:adv. -bɨɨ vi. bɨɨnam vs:adv. -cɨr from (a present or future time onwards) pos. `gə `lokə from (downward) dem.pos. `bolo full (moon) adj. yɨrbɨɨ full (stomach) adj. doji fully vs:advsr. -ik...-ek vs:advsr. -ɨk...-ek adjs:der. -totii `kə pos. `bokkə 366 fun get rid of fun adj. `ɨrgaa function vt. `jubnam funds n. `ain-`murkoo fungus (variety) n. tain-indəə funny adj. `məəɲɨr funny (to see) adj. `kaahɨr furious adj. hiduk vt. `agnam further (a lineage) vt. nennam (1) furthermore vs:nf. -gərə fury n. hiduk fuschia n. jaajin future adv. `alloo-`rəətə n:time. `kojo-`allo future (near) n:time. `hɨrum-`allo G gag vi. `baom gallop vi. `coonam vi. `yoonam - g gather vs:advsr. -`kum...-`rum vi. pumnam vt. həənam vt. `laacɨɨ vi. `puŋkər Gallus gallus n. `pɨrsin Galo name. `Galoo game n. horə-`mootum game bird n. pɨrɨk-taakuu gap n. `agee gape vt. `ceepor garbage fly n. yɨɨji garden n. luupaa n. luugoo gather (something semi-solid) vt. ognam gathered together vs:adv. -`kum gaur n. `baamin gaze vt. `kaaŋak gecko n. `hoojɨɨ-`hoopen n. `bentə-`hobuk generation n. alii-aŋoo Genitive case postposition pos. `gə Genitive case suffix pros. -`kə gentleman n. ɲii-hobə geological n. koroo-`komam garland vt. `tunam Garra gotyla n. ŋotup Garra sp. n. ŋoyoo Garra spp. n. ŋoruu Garrulax leucolophus n. `puruu Garrulax squamatus n. hursak n. cupcak depression germinate vi. `garnam get vt. `paanam adjs:rcom. -rəp gas n. `amuk gate n. luurap get rid of vt. `laapak 367 get to gotcha get to vs:adv. -`paa get up vi. gərəp ghost n. `uii n. `orom glowingly vs:adv. -cɨɨ gluttonous vs:adv. -rak adj. yarok Glyptothorax n. ŋocər gnaw vt. nagnam vt. `rəgnam gibberish n. `uii-agom gift n. jinam n. `amen n. `lagmen go vie. innam (1) vt. innam gigantic adj. `kayɨɨ gigolo n. `taloo gill n. `cəmsap gimme int. `heloo ginger n. takee girl n:poet. taamɨɨ n. `ɲijɨr (1) vt. `gɨnam go (home) vie. aanam go back vt. `iŋkur go to (a house) vie. `caanam goat n. `hobin goat (wild) n. bɨbo goatskin n. `binpin God n. `yɨrnə go-getter n. `yɨrnə going to vs:adv. -`ta goiter n. gɨɨpə golden langur n. `beehor good vi. `ponam adj:poet. abaa adj. alə n. alə vs:adv. -`ken vs:adv. -`po give vte. jinam give up vt. `pagnam glance vi. arnam glance off vs:adv. -`rek glance off (beating) vt. `pəərek glasses n. `ɲɨgor n. aɲɨk-taluu glide vi. jaanam glimmering adj:expr. lɨglɨk-laglak glimpse n. `ɲɨŋmə-ɲii glittering adj:expr. lɨglɨk-laglak globe n. `apə globular adj. `apə adj. `apə-`liilum good old days n:time. `omor good-for-nothing vi. yaanam goods n. `yaraa goose n. pɨgɨɨ-poyoo gorgeous adj. `kaayum-`kaaŋam goshawk n. dookoo-`koocik gotcha int. `kəloo glow vi. ɨrcɨɨ vi. `ɨrnam glowing ace. uucɨɨ 368 gourd group gourd n. `cugrii-`pumpaa grab vt. gagnam grade n:clf. adap gradual adj. alə-alə adj. `rəəŋam-rəəŋam n. `yapəə-rəənə n. `komci n. `komlee n. takom-dummaa grave n. ɲibuu gravel n. `lɨɨmɨk gray hair n. dumpuu graze vt. nagnam grease n. au greasy adj. au great barbet n. `pudur great pied hornbill n. pəgaa greedy adj. yarok green n. `jee adj. `yajee gradually vs:adv. -`ləə grainy adj. hiik adj. `iik granary n. `naahuu grandchild n:kin. `okur grandfather n:kin. ɨjɨɨ n. ɲɨjɨɨ n:kin. `ato grandmother n:kin. `ayo n:kin. ikam n:kin. `kakam n. ɲikam green (dark) n. kanə-`jee green (light) n. `louu-`jee green bee-eater (bird) n. cɨrum-nabbuu grandparents n. `ato-`ayo grasp vt. həənam vt. `gɨrnam vt. gagnam vt. `yumnam green vegetable n. `omɨɨ greenish-blue n. `jee grind vt. `kennam (2) vt. `rəgnam grasp (with claws) vt. `cumnam grasp (with pincers) vt. habnam grass n. `nəmɨɨ n. `tapii-tamaa grind (into bits) vt. `kemmɨk grope vt. mamnam vt. ubnam grass (variety) n. `tasi n. `tapop n. `taji n. tapii ground cover n. nəhɨk-`nəmɨɨ ground squirrel n. koocəə group n:qual. atɨr n. `gadə n:qual. atɨɨ n. apar n. apom grass stalk (variety) n. piikoo grasshopper n. takom grasshopper (variety) n. mɨrbo n. tamii-`jesi 369 group (of people) handful (grasped) group (of people) n. luutɨr grove n. `hɨɨluu grove (of plaintains) n. luurɨɨ grow vi. goonam grow (larger) vi. `tənam grow (of plant) vie. `caanam grow up v:c.arg. inam grumble stomach vi. gurnam grunt vi. `umnam vi. `ugnam guava n. `mudorii guess pcl. `com guest n. ɲibo gum (vegetable) n. `abak gums n. iiɲɨr gun n. `abbuk n. `məbuk gun barrel n. nolii gusto vs:adv. -`jɨɨ guts n. akii H habit vs:nzr. -pee n. `rɨpee - h half n. takci half kilogram n. puaa half moon n. `poolo-`ao halfheartedly vs:advsr. -bee...-lee vs:adv. -bee habitually vs:adv. -ŋoo habitually use vs:adv. -pee hack vt. kərnam vt. təgnam vt. kobnam vt. panam half-legged adj. `lətuu half-mad vi. `musi-`mulee hall n. dəərə hallucinate vt. `kaaro-`tamo hammer vt. pəənam n. gɨɨtum n. `martum hag n. kamgo-riiloo hail n. taɨ hair (baby’s) n. dumluk hair (body) n. `amə hair (ear) n. `ruumə hair (head) n. adum hair (leg) n. `ləmə hair (of the arm) n. `lagmə hair beads n. dumjen hair clip n. `ɨksap hairband n. bekkap hand n. alak hand (left) n. `lakci hand (of bananas) n:clfq. apee hand (right) n. `lagbək handclap n. `yapop handful n. `ayum handful (grasped) n:clfq. aok 370 handful (one hand) head (of a river) handful (one hand) n. lakpə handful (two-handed) n. `bəəcum handicapped person n. ɲidam handle n. aguu n. akoo harsh adj. `aci harvest (cane) vt. `pinnam harvest (rice) v:c.arg. eenam harvest festival n. moopin harvest time n. `laadə n. `laadɨ handle (blade) n. `rogɨɨ handle (of a fishing net) n. `habree handle (umbrella) n. tiikoo hand-me-down n. `jeku handspan n:clfq. agop hang vt. `tamnam vi. `bɨnam vt. ognam vt. tennam vt. agnam vt. `oksɨr ~ `laadə has/have (been) vs:asp. -`tuu hassle vs:advsr. -dik...-ik vt. `mendik `menik hasty adj:expr. apuk-aluk adj. apuk-aree adj. apuk adj. apuk-anak hat n. `boolup hat brim n. `lubər hatch vi. `garnam hate n. `anek haunch n. arpoo n. arbaa vt. pagnam hanging bridge n. hoom hangover n. tɨɨŋər haphazardly vs:adv. -`jik happen vie. `rɨnam happy new year adv. `ɲɨɨgam `bə harass vt. `menrik hard adj. `aci adj. `akum adj. `addɨɨ adj. attor vi. tornam haunch (of the arm) n. lagbaa have vi. kaanam vt. bəənam have (a disease) vt. gərɨk have to vs:adv. -ken v:mod. lagi hawk n. dookoo n. mɨkom hard stone n. `lɨɨtor hardness n. `addɨɨ hardship vt. endɨr harm vt. `monam harrier n. dookoo haywire adj. tarak he/she pro. `bɨɨ head n. dumpoo head (base) n. `koogak head (of a pond) n. `hilə-`lədum head (of a river) n. `ahɨɨ 371 head (of a stream) hilarious head (of a stream) n. `kohɨɨ head (of cattle, e.g.) n:clf. ador head louse n. `taɨk headache n. `dumci head-butt vt. tubnam headdress (bridal) n. dumboo headfirst (move) vi. durnam headless adj. dummaa headman n. gam headress (variety) n. baalɨɨ headscarf n. `dumpuk headstrap n. `hee head-to-toe n. tukko-`ləpaa heal vt. `mopo vs:adv. -`po vi. geenam heedful vi. darnam heel n. `lədo heft vt. `joonam helicopter n. `pumpaa-roodə hell n. mooraa helmet n. `luptuu help vt. `rɨdum vs:adv. -gur helpfully vs:adv. -`dum helter skelter vs:advs. -kup...-lek hen n. `rognə her/him pro. `bɨəm her/his pro. `bɨɨkə herb n. ɨɨjɨɨ herd of cattle n. ətɨɨ here dem.pos. `hogo heritage n. alii herself n:qual. aɨɨ hew vt. tagnam hey pcl. a hey fellas! int. `buləə hey! pcl. `ə hiccup n. `jəkək hide vi. `kahi higglety-pigglety vi:expr. ajəə-ayəə high adj. oodom adj. oen adj. `oodoo heal over vt. `geerup healthy vi. jɨɨnam heap n. `apum vt. `pumnam heap (of stones) n. `lɨɨpom hear vt. `tapaa vt. `tanam heart n. `aapuk hearth n. `imik n. `əmə-`iiko n. `miram heat vt. amnam n. `ago heat lightning n. `dookoo-`ɲokik heavens n. dooɲi-taləə heavy adj. `aii high priest n. ɲɨgree high-step vi. daanam hilarious adj. `məəɲɨr 372 hill hot water hill n. `adii n. `diicum hole (result) vs:adv. -`koo hollow vs:adv. -pɨk hollowed vi. `kopɨk holy moly! int. abbaa! int. ablaa! hill-tribal n. `ɲimə hilt n. takor him/her pro. `bɨəm Himalayan jungle nightjar n. abo-kornoo home n. `ipin homestead n. gɨɨdaa-`isi n. `ipin Himalayan screw pine n. `tako Himalayan slatyheaded parakeet n. pəbee Homo sapiens n. tanii honey n. tao-atii n. atii n. ŋillaa n. `yɨrken himself n:qual. aɨɨ hind legs n. aar n. arbaa Hindi n. `Hindii hip n. `əkoo his/her pro. `bɨɨkə hit vt. dəmnam vt. pəənam honeybee n. taŋik hood n. nappaa hook vt. agnam n. tooko hook (of a fishing line) n. `kərcɨr hop vi. pognam horn n. rəəbuu hornbill n. `pɨhik-pəgaa hornbill (wreathed) n. `gaaree horned beetle n. cuuɲi horned owl (variety) n. uduu.`buduu n. `ugjii-`birii hit (with stick) vt. hinnam (2) hitchhiker seed n. tagam hoard vt. `rinnam (1) vs:adv. -rak hodgepodge adj:expr. `akin-`amin hog deer n. `dumcuu hoi! int. hoi! hold vt. bəənam hold (in cupped receptacle) vt. `gaanam horny vi. `yolɨɨ horse n. guree n. hokə hold (in mouth) vt. `umnam hold out vs:adv. -`yɨɨ hole vi. uunam n. aruu hot adj. `ago hot (chili taste) adj. `au hot (result) vs:adv. -`go hot water n. `higo hole (in stone) n. `lɨɨruu 373 house Hystrix indica house n. namə house (breadth) n. nampoo n. nampə human flesh n. ɲidin humanity n. tanii humid vi. umnam hump n. `lɨɨcuu hunchback n. uugɨr hundred n:num. camrɨɨ n:num. `alɨɨ house (cluster) n. `nampom house (decrepit) n. namyaa house (length) n. `namyar house (small) n. `namcə house lizard n. `bentə-`hobuk housefly n. tayɨɨ-tamaa hover vi. paanam vi. rəlii-cənam hungry adj. `kanoo hunk (of bone) n. loobɨɨ hunky adj. `kaahɨr hunter n. ɲigam hunter hunter (dry land/plains) n. `tumpə-ɲigam hover (of eagle) vi. cənam how pro:int. `yoobə pro:int. `yombə (jungle) how (many) pro:int. `yadə how (much) pro:int. `yadə how lovely! int. a`tii! however vs:nf. -gərə vs:nf. -`laacin pcl. `den n. `mootum-ɲigam hunting n. horə-`mootum hunting dog n. `kiimen hunting party n. `kiirup hurl vt. gənam vt. `lənam however many pro:int. `yadə go huddled (arms) adj. pakɨk-lalɨk hue n. `amɨr-`amo n. `amɨr hurried adj. apuk-anak adj. apuk adj:expr. apuk-aluk hurry n. jugnam-pognam hurt vt. `modɨɨ vt. `modɨɨ hug vt. `gomnam huge adj. `kayɨɨ hulk n. `apum human n:poet. ɲia human being n. ɲii n. ɲii-tanii n. tanii husband n:kin. `ɲiloo hyperactive vi. ragnam adj. tarak hypnotize vt. `aamik Hystrix indica n. hosi 374 I in the future I I pro. ŋo - i Imperative suffix (non-speakerdirected) vs:mod. -to Imperative suffix (non-speakerdirected, insistent) vs:mod. -tok Imperative suffix (polite) vs:mod. -`laa ice n. tapam idea n. məənam identical adj. ləyyɨɨ identify vt. `kaapək identity n. `ɲipə idiot n. `otar n. peccaa Imperative suffix (speaker-directed) vs:mod. -`laa Imperfective aspectual suffix idiot (female) n. `yaŋaa idiot (male) n. `taŋaa idiotic adj. peccaa if vs:nf. -boolo pcl. -boolo vs:asp. -`duu implore vt. `cənam impose vs:adv. -ten impose (oneself) vt. `menten imprecisely vs:adv. -koo impressive vs:adv. -`hɨr imprison vt. tumnam improve vs:adv. -`den impure adj. `abur-ae in pos. lo in (a time span) pos. `əm in (some hypothetical time) pos. `ne in (some way) pos. `bə in (the) pos. `bə in any case cnj. əmbə-rɨnamə in fact vs:adv. -jaa in person adj. `ɲibəə in that case cnj. əmrəm (light) in the end vs:asp. -ku in the future adv. `alloo-`rəətə igneous stone n. `lɨɨkaa ignore vt. `yəənam ill vs:adv. -ram illness n. `aci imbibe vt. tɨɨnam immature adj:expr. `omee-`oree immediately vs:adv. -gor immobilize vt. `aamik impaled vs:adv. -gɨk impaling stake (small) n. `oor impede vi. gɨɨci-gɨɨten impeded vs:adv. -`kin vs:adv. -jik vs:advs. -jik...-ak Imperative suffix vs:mod. -`tolaa 375 incantation insouciant incantation v. `cənam-beenam inch vi. ŋomnam incinerate vt. romnam vt. `rompak infuriated vi. `leenam inhale vi. `haglɨk inhospitable terrain n. `moodɨr n. `moodɨr-`moocoo incite vs:adv. -`ɨr vt. `rɨɨr initiate vs:adv. -kok vs:adv. -rəp inclined vi. `onam Inclusive pcl. `ju incorrectly vs:adv. -`mur incorrectly targeted vs:adv. -gaa increase vi. mɨɨnam increase (in size) vi. `tənam incredible adj. `ədɨɨ incredible! int. ayaa-maabə incubate vt. gubnam indeed adjs:der. -`jaa indeed! int. `əcom India n. indiyaa Indian n. indiyan Indian mottled eel n. ŋobə Indian myna n. `pilam Indian nightingale n. bekko indiscriminately vs:adv. -kek vs:advsr. -`kee...-`ee initiate (an activity) vt. `rɨkok injudicious vi. goonam injure vs:adv. -təə injury nce. tarə n. uun-tarə inkling n. məəmo-molap innards n. akii insane vi. `munam insanity n. `munam-rumnam insect n. tapum-`taloo insect (terrestrial) n. tapum insect (variety) n. `tapik n. `tacaa n. taməə n. taɲi n. tagik n. `goe n. `tarɨɨ n. taŋo-`tarii n. tado-molek n. taii n. `tarik n. `taɲek n. takom-yamə n. paagap ineffective vs:adv. -cɨɨ infant n. `uŋŋaa infect vt. `ɲognam infection (skin) n. `taɲo donam inferior vs:adv. -ree vi. məəree insert vt. `lɨgnam inside n:rel. `araa insouciant vi. goonam hinam inferno n. `məgu inflate vi. goonam 376 inspect itself inspect vt. `kaakee `kaee instance n:clf. `abaa instead vs:val. -naa vs:adv. -raa vs:adv. -bum vt. `rɨbum invite vt. bonam invite (reciprocally) vt. bolɨk instead (of) vs:adv. -`yaa insult vt. `meɲyoo vs:adv. -yoo vt. `rɨyoo (-boak) invite over (to one’s house) vt. boaa invoke vt. `monam vt. beenam intelligent adj. ardə adj:expr. `apək-`arək iron n. `rogdin n. `rogdɨr intensely vs:adv. -`ŋak intently vs:adv. -`ŋak interactions n. kaanam-`tanam interesting adj. `ɨrgaa vs:adv. -`hɨr irratating adj. `adup Irrealis nominalizer vs:nzr. -ha Irrealis suffix vs:asp. -rə irritate vs:adv. -dɨk vs:adv. -`luk vt. dɨgnam interior (of a house) n. `namraa intermediate n. `peŋkoo intermittently vs:advsr. -nii...-naa intestine (large) n. `kiiro intestine (small) n. kiijɨɨ into pos. lo vs:val. -`lɨk irritated (eyes) adj. `ɲɨkci-polɨɨ irritated (of eyes) adj. ɲɨglɨɨ is vi. rənam cop. ə island (riverine) n. `bokpen isn’t it pcl. `maadɨɨ pcl. `maaco pcl. `maabə pcl. `əi into (a hole) vs:adv. -`ruu into (a space) vs:adv. -buu into (a substance) vs:adv. -`buk into (something else) pos. `bə into chunks (result) vs:adv. -jek into small pieces (result) vs:adv. -`jɨr intonation n. `gomuk intone vt. barnam inundation n. `puumii invade someone’s space isolated vs:adv. -raa it dem. `əgə it (Accusative form) pro. `əm itch n. `aak vt. ognam itchy adj. `aak iteration vs:nzr. -rəp itself n:qual. aɨɨ 377 jackfruit just (now) J jackfruit n. `bəlaa jackfruit seed n. `laamə jail n. pahii-patək nce. patək - j joint (on bamboo) n. `aatəə jokingly vs:adv. -laa juice n. alaa n. paalaa jam vt. tərnam January n:time. deecɨɨ n:time. hɨɨlo julienne vt. `gajɨr July n:time. `tenloo jumbled vi:expr. ajəə-ayəə jump vi. `yobnam vi. `jobnam jar n. kiilɨɨ jawbone n. `cogbee jealous adj. `anek vt. nənam jump (in place) vt. cumnam jump down vi. `yobloo jump over vt. `yobboo jump up vi. `yobduu June n:time. `ilo jungle n. `mootum jungle (dense) n. yamdɨɨ n. `tumraa jerk vt. tɨgnam jerk upward vt. `cagnam jerkingly vs:adv. -tɨk vs:advsr. -jər...-mər jet n. doogum-roodə jewelery n. `gəmen jew’s harp n. guugaa jhum field n. `moodii-rɨkə job n. ager Job’s tear millet n. `taɲək join vs:val. -min join (as co-participant) vs:adv. -`ŋii join (long things) vs:adv. -hik join (by pushing) vt. nɨksik just vs:adv. -`məm pcl. `ɲum vs:adv. -mum pcl. `mum vs:adv. -`cəə just (like) n:qual. `cəə just (now) vs:adv. -piK 378 kaleej pheasant knuckle (of the hand) K kaleej pheasant n. pɨrɨk keel vi. `yəənam vi. `rəənam - k kiss.and.cluck.mouth vi. `muupuk-dotak kitchen n. `doko kite n. dookoo knead vt. gaaɲom knead (large) vt. nunam knead (small) vt. nonam vt. nennam keel over vi. tabnam keep vt. anam vt. `ləənam keep (on) vs:adv. -bəə keep a relationship vt. gaksi keep safely vs:adv. -`cɨɨ kernel (of corn/maize) n. `pəcɨr kettle n. təksɨɨ kettle handle n. aguu kick vt. tunam kick the bucket vi. `binnam (1) kickstart vt. tubek kid n. `omee kid (baby goat) n. `biɲcuu kidnap (a woman) vt. ɲimə (2) knee n. `ləbɨɨ kneecap n. `ləbɨɨ-tatək n. `taci-`poolo knife n. `occik n. `rokcik knit vt. koonam vt. `tunam knock (on a door) vt. cəənə-cɨɨbə knock-kneed adj. `ləjuu knot (concave, on a tree) n. `guucup `henam kidney n. `akek kill vt. panam kindling n. tako-ramcəə king cobra n. `bɨtə kingfish n. `orcəə kingfisher n. deb-curum n. bet-curum knot (convex, on a tree) n. `guuɲək knot (on bamboo) n. `aatəə know vt. `cennam (1) know (someone) vt. `kaacen knowingly vs:adv. -`cen knuckle n. `aatəə knuckle (of the hand) n. lakcəə-`baatəə kiss vt. `muupuk 379 Labeo dero leaf (dried) L Labeo dero n. ŋopii Labeo devdevi n. `ŋapee Labeo pangusia n. tɨŋɨr labour (reciprocal) n. rɨgee lack v. maanam ladder n. `koobaa ladder (large) n. `baatə ladder (small) n. `baacak ladle vt. `hugnam n. `ujuk - l last child n:kin. `oii last daughter n. `yai last evening n:time. `mərum last night n:time. `məyo n:time. `mərum last year n:time. `məɲɨɨ late adj. `nərɨɨ late afternoon n:time. `roorii lately n:time. `hɨrum-`hɨro latrine n. `eeko laugh vi. ɲɨrnam laughable vs:adv. -`ɲɨr laughing thrush n. cupcak n. hursak lake n. `isi-`hilə lame adj. `lədɨr n. `ləjəə adj. `ləjəə lament vt. `cənam land (of plane, bird) vi. `dəətuu landslide n. racek language n. `gomuk n. agom lay (fencing) vt. `pennam (2) lay (on something) vt. `pamten lay bare vs:advsr. -kak...-lak lay out vt. `reenam layer vt. agnam laze vi. `pubnam lazy-eyed adj. ɲɨgrəm lead vt. bonam vs:val. -gə n. raŋ langur n. `beehor Lanius schach tricolor n. dɨcɨɨ-pətaa Lare name. `Laree large amount n. `həɲəm large intestine n. `kiiro larger goldenbacked woodpecker n. `kaabee lead (a person) vt. iŋgə lead (animal) vt. goonam leaf n. anə vt. ləgnam larva (variety) n. tahuu-miibuu lasso n. pogoo leaf (dried) n. `hennə 380 leaf (rotten) lie (in a particular position) leaf (rotten) n. nəyaa lean vi. gubnam leaning leaning pillar pillar (men’s) (women’s) n. abo-gɨɨtuu n. `anə-gɨɨtuu length (of rope, e.g.) n:clf. ahoo lengthwise adj. `ayar leopard n. homen-takar leopard (clouded) n. `hɨɨbo-`ɲoree leprosy n. taik lesion n. uun lesser coucal n. yamdɨɨ-polɨɨ let vs:val. -`ko let me (do this) vs:mod. -`hoo lethargic vi. ŋɨnam adj:expr. adəm-aməm leap vi. pognam leather n. `əpin leave vt. `əpak vi. `nennam vt. `tonam (1) leave behind vt. `ɲopen leech n. `tapek leech (jungle) n. `perro leech (variety) n. pettak left ear n. `ruuci left hand n. `lakci left leg/foot n. `ləci leftovers n. doŋoo leg n. `alə leg hair n. `ləmə leg/foot (left) n. `ləci leg/foot (right) n. `ləbək leg-locked adj. `kojup legs (hind) n. arbaa leisurely vs:advsr. -`jik...-`mik lemme see int. `helom lemon (variety) n. tahɨɨ lend vt. narnam length n. `ayar n. `ahor let’s pcl. `ju let’s go int. `kajuu letter n. potaa letter (epistle) n. sitii letter (of alphabet) n. `akor level n:clf. adap level best vs:advs. -tər...-gaa levy (fine) vt. guuɲɨɨ-`monam license n. `potə lichen n. tamɨɨ lick vt. ragnam lid (of a kettle) n. puktum lie vt. mənam lie (chest-down) vi. babum vi. pogbum lie (down) vi. gennam (2) vi. doonam lie (face-down) vi. bamnam vi. bumnam length (of beads, e.g.) n:clfq. atək lie (in a particular position) 381 lie (on back) lively vi. kənam like lie (on back) vi. kəlek lie (on one’s side) vi. kədɨr vi. `kədɨr that (thing previously mentioned) pro. `əmbə like that (upward) pro. `təmbə like this (nearer to speaker than hearer) pro. `həmbə like this (thing currently under discussion) pro. `həmbə lime n. `tano limp vi. jəənam line (fishing) n. kəren line (in genealogy) n. `nəgɨɨ line (of individuals) n. `horii line (straightness of direction) n. horii lie (prostrate) vi. gennam (2) lie down vi. `bumlɨk lie down (as when sick) vi. kɨɨnam lie facing downward vi. gekkup lie facing upward vi. gellek lifeless vi. `rugnam lifestyle n. rənam-`duunam n. rəyɨɨ lift vt. `joonam light vt. `runam n. `louu n. `mədor line dance n. `poonuu lineage n. alii n. `nenko light (electric) n. elektri-`louu light green n. `louu-`jee lightning n. `doorak lightning (earthbound) n. `muglɨɨ lightweight adj. `aajup like vt. məəcem vt. məənam vt. `emmɨɨ vt. pagnam vt. `enlɨk lion n. `ɲotə lip (of a pot) n. pɨcɨɨ-abə lips (fat) n. `nabber liquor n. `opoo lisp v. rojam n. rojam listen vt. `tanam little adj. ajjii adj. aɲɲii like (someone) vt. `kaalɨɨ like (that one, on same/unknown level) pro. `ambə like (to do something) vs:adv. -cem like that (downward) pro. `bəmbə like that (nearer to hearer than to speaker) pro. `əmbə little rascal n. yapci live vi. gɨɨnam-hɨɨnam vi. hɨɨnam vt. hɨɨnam vi. rənam vi. gɨɨnam livelihood n. `pɨnam-paanam lively adj:expr. ɨrɨɨ-ərəə 382 liver lost liver n. ahin liver (chicken) n. roksin livestock n. hokə-holar n. hobə-hoə look after vt. ɲitɨɨ-homen vt. kaaraa vt. `kaacɨɨ-`tacɨɨ vt. pagnam Livistona jenkinsiana n. taək lizard (variety) n. dooɲi-kessoo-kelloo n. ɲidoo-kessoo-kelloo n. kessoo-kelloo look down (on someone) vt. kaaree look for vt. manam look into (a space) vi. kaabuu look out! int. yəcu look under vt. kaɨk loom (element) n. `lootə n. `taapə n. gurnə-`naanə n. loomee n. `rubuu n. `ɲikoo n. `gəkoo n. `taɲi n. gəen n. `itam n. `niikoo n. kobdaa Locative case marker pos. lo Locative nominalizer vs:nzr. -`ko lock (via crossbar) vt. kootum log n. `hɨɨpoo loincloth n. `habə Lonchura punctulata n. `picik loneliness n. `jimii lonely adj. `jimii adj:expr. `aŋaa-`araa long adj. `ahoo adj. `ahor adj. `ayar adj. `yarsoo loony vi. `musi-`mulee loose adj. aur adj. ahur long (bamboo) adj:mono. -`hoo long (dam) adj. `bogyar adj. `boksoo loose motion/bowels adj. `eejik vi. akii-jugnam vi. binnam (2) long ago n:time. `məro-`kenluu adv. kojjuu adv. `məroo-`kenloo loosen vs:adv. -`hor Lophura leucomelana n. pɨrɨk lopped adj. naptuu lord n:kin. `ato loris n. hobee-rii lose (way) vt. `ŋaanam lose way vt. `ŋagnam lost vi. ŋeenam long bean n. peeren long since adv. kojjuu look vt. kaanam look (as though) vie. kaanam look (downward) vt. kaabok 383 lot man (mature) vi. `ŋaanam vi. `ŋagnam vt. ayaa vt. pagnam lot vs:adv. -ben loud (sound) adj. `dutə n. `dutə lovey name. `Kaalɨɨ low vs:adv. -`ɨɨ adj. `oɨɨ lounge vi. `pubnam louse (baby) n. `ɨkci louse (body) n. `takə louse (chicken) n. pilii-`pɨkə louse (head) n. `taɨk louse (mature) n. `ɨgnə louse (medium-sized) n. `ɨkpen louse egg n. `ɨkpə lovable adj. ayaa love vt. məənam n. ayaa lower side n:rel. `tuukoo lower village n. `cɨɨkoo luck n. agam n. ai-agam lucky vs:adv. -gam lullabye n. `nimii lunch n. dɨpɨraa n:time. `loogaa lung n. `aaro lure vt. bona(a) M macaque n. beedəə machete n. `orok mad vi. `munam magician n. `uii-`ao mahasheer n. `ŋogə n. ŋoco - m majority (of people) adj. `tɨɨtə make vs:val. -`mo vt. `monam make (a train) vt. impo make a mistake vt. `rɨmur make noise vi. harnam male n:poet. ɲigam male (animal) n. apo malformed (mouth) adj. nappor n. nappor mahseer n. tadoo main road n. `bənə maintain a gap vs:adv. -`gee maize n. təpə maize (brown) n. `pəmar maize (yellow) n. pəji majority adj. `tuutə mammary gland n. `aco man n. ɲii man (mature) n. aci-abo 384 manage to measure (in handspans) manage to vt. `pagnam vs:adv. -`paa vs:advs. -`paa...-`laa masticate vt. ɲamnam mat (bamboo) n. `peecəə mat (sitting) n. `upə mate vt. mennam (2) mate vt. `meenam maternal aunt (elder) n:kin. `motə maternal aunt (second) n:kin. moroo manageable adj. homə manageable quantity n. anin management nce. gɨɨdaa mane n. `həəpɨr Manihot esculanta n. `hɨɨj-iŋin Manis n. `hocik manner n. `rɨkor-`meŋkor n. `rɨii-`docaa maternal aunt (younger) n:kin. moii maternal aunt’s daughter n:kin. ɲɨɨɲi n:kin. moii Mantis n. `hobin-taraa many n:qual. yaakaa vi. meenam adj. yaakaa maternal aunt’s son n:kin. `ɲɨɨbɨɨ maternal uncle n:kin. akə maternal uncle (eldest) n:kin. `kɨtə maternal uncle (second) n:kin. kɨroo maternal uncle (third) n:kin. kɨdəə maternal uncle (younger) n:kin. kii matter n. agom mattress n. doopə n. `doogəə marbled cat n. `taso March n:time. lumii mare n. `reenə mark vs:adv. -`rə market n. `bojar maroon adj. `yamuk adj:expr. `yamuk-`yaruk maroonbacked n. `kɨlum imperial pigeon mature vi. kamnam mature man n. aci-abo mature woman n. aɲi-abo May n:time. lucɨr may pcl. `pə vs:adv. -`dee marriage n. ɲidaa married woman n. `anə-ɲaməə marrow n. loonii marry vt. `laanam marry (a man) vie. aanam marry (woman) v:inc.arg.O. ɲimə mayfly n. taaɲii me (obj.) pro. `ŋom measure vt. kɨnam measure (in handspans) vi. gobnam `laanam marsh n. paataa master n:kin. `ato 385 meat minority meat n. adin meat (dry) n. `dinsen meat (fresh) n. `dinlee meat (hunk, for distributing) n. dintək merged adj. `padum merit n. alə Merops orientalis n. cɨrum-nabbuu mess n. `rɨmur-`rɨkee messed up adj:expr. `akin-`arin messy vs:adv. -jee adj. ahup-ayap adj. ajəə meat (hunk, large) n. rəəbə median n. `ləpaa Mediative pos. `lokə mediator n. lampo medicine n. kusuri n. `nəənə n. `dəənə-`poonə n. `nəənə-`poonə Mesua ferrea n. nahor Method nominalizer vs:nzr. -`ko methodical adj. `dəŋom-`dələə microfauna n. pətaa-`kobuu midday nce. `loopoo middle n. `ləpaa adj. `ləpaa meet vt. kaarɨk hinam vt. kaarɨk vs:val. -rɨk meet (along way) vt. inrɨk meet (for a meeting) v:c.arg. baanam middle-aged woman n. `anə-ɲaməə meeting n. kəbaa megafauna n. `hotə-`hoɲo Megalaima virens n. `pudur melancholy n. `dɨɨdoo Melastoma n. acaa-`kayaa melon n. məəbə melon (ripe) n. baŋin melt vs:adv. -jik vi. jinnam midnight adj. `yoraa n:time. `yoraa midpoint vs:nzr. -tuu midst n:rel. `peŋkoo might pcl. `pə migrate vi. bagnam mildew adj. tayum-tabar milk n. `aco millet n. tamii millet (variety) n. `taek mince vt. təgnam mind vt. məəɲɨɨ vs:advs. -ɲɨɨ...-co (2) memento n. `rəroo-`duuroo memorize vt. məəgap men’s balcony n. `ɲiloo-`koodaa men’s doorway n. `ɲiloo-`rabgo menstruation n. `agum-`parmoo minority adj. tuuyaa 386 minutely money minutely vs:adv. -`mɨk Minyong name. Ɲiɲoo miracle n. arə mirage n. `yəəyɨɨ-paacaa Mirative pcl. `laaka Miri name. Mirii mirror n. arsi miser n. `hibin miserly adj. `ramrɨɨ adj. `hibin vi. `dobin adj. rumram vs:adv. -`bin misunderstand vt. `tamur mithun n. hobə n:poet. aaɲi mithun (black) nce. `bokaa mithun (red) nce. bolɨɨ mithun (wild) n. `horom mithun bull n. `botə mithun calf n. `hoo n. `hocuu mithun cow n. `honə mithun herd n. hotɨɨ mithun pen n. `hɨɨpik mithun skin n. `hopin mix vs:adv. -`yər mixed up vs:adv. -ɲom moan and groan vt. dɨgnam mock vs:adv. -ek vt. kaek misguide vt. `menɨr mishear vt. `tamur Mising name. `Misɨɨ miss vce. alak vs:advsr. -lak...-cak adj:expr. alak-aak vs:advsr. -lak...-ak adj:expr. alak-acak moist adj. `kuucuk mojo n. amɨr-amo n. amɨr miss (a step) vi. `hamŋaa miss (a target) vs:adv. -lak miss (fail to affect) vs:adv. -pen miss (someone) adj:expr. akak-alak miss (when shooting) vt. `ablak miss (when throwing) vt. naalak missed (item) vs:nzr. məəpen misspeak vt. `memmur mist n. aapam n. taŋar molar n. iigam mold n. tapuu-`tapen moldy adj. tapuu-`tapen mole n. `uii-`məəram mole (skin, protruding) n. `tahək moment n:time. `cəə moment (ago) adv. `ijjaa moment (in a) adv. `ijjaa mommy n:mese. mami money n. `ain-`murkoo n. `murkoo mistake n. `rɨmur mistakenly vs:adv. -`mur 387 mongoose mountain carp (variety) n. `pohaa mori n. ŋopii mori minnow n. ŋopii-piilik morning adv. komci-tanii adj. `aro n:time. `aro mongoose n. ɨhɨɨ-kooɲɨɨ monitor lizard n. `horkek monkey n. hobee monkey (baby) nce. `beo monkey (bachelor) n. beetum monkey (crowd) n. beeluu n. beetɨɨ morning (early) n:time. `rokkom n:time. `aro-komci n:time. komci n:time. kom`cii monkey (variety) n. `beo-`koolɨɨ month (eighth) n:time. `hɨo month (eleventh) n:time. lubə month (fifth) n:time. lucɨr month (first) n:time. deecɨɨ month (fourth) n:time. lukɨɨ month (ninth) n:time. `hɨɨtə month (second) n:time. `aglo month (seventh) n:time. `tenloo month (sixth) n:time. `ilo month (tenth) n:time. pɨraa month (third) n:time. lumii month (twelfth) n:time. `ratə moo vi. nunam expr. paa morning (late) n:time. `caato-`caaɲaa moron n. peccaa n. peccaa-caadɨr morpheme n. `gomcɨr mortar (large) n. cɨɨpar mosquito n. taruu mosquito (variety) n. `ɲumɲɨr moss n. tamɨɨ moss (variety) n:expr. tapɨɨ-tamɨɨ most pcl. `ruu most (people) adj. `tɨɨtə moth n. `uii-yapər-`poomɨr moth (small) n. pərci-pərɲi mother n:kin. `anə n:poet. `anə-ɲindum moon n. `poolo moon (dark) n. `poolo-`lorup nce. `lorup mother-in-law n:kin. `ayo Motion modal suffix vs:mod. -`taa motorcycle n. tuktuk mountain n:poet. `yordii n. `adii n. `moodii moon (half) n. `poolo-`ao moonlight n. `poolo-`louu n. `karcaa Moopin n. moopin more (than) vs:adv. -`yaa moreover vs:nf. -gərə mountain (cultivated) n. `moobii mountain carp (variety) 388 mountain field mustard (variety) n. `ŋoraa-`pakkaa n. `ŋopə-pɨree nce. `ŋoraa n. `ŋopə vt. `rɨbik-`dolik muddled ace. `akin vs:adv. -`kin vs:advsr. -`kin...-`min adj:expr. `akin-`amin mountain field n. `moodii-rɨkə mouse n. `kobuu mouse (baby) n. `buo n. `buucuu muddy adj. `giccii adj. `jiccii muddy water n. `hijik mug n. `koob n. pətak mouse (variety) n. paacəə-rodo moustache n. `nammə mouth n. nappaa mouth (protruding) n. naptor mouth harp n. guugaa mouthful n:clfq. `aum move vs:advsr. -nə...-bə vi. əgnam vi. `rɨnə-`rɨbə mug (bamboo) n. tɨrkak multicoloured adj. `yaree Multiplicative pos. `bə multiplicity n. mee n. yaakaa multiply vi. mɨɨnam Muntiacus var. n. `hodum muntjac n. `hodum murderer n. `ɲilee pana murmur onom. bɨd-`bod muscle n. adin mushroom n. tain mushroom (variety) n. `hɨɨtuu-tain move (head) vi. baanam vt. baanam move (headfirst) vi. durnam move (on same level) vie. aanam move (one’s home) vi. bagnam move in vt. `baglɨk move out vi. `baglen much pcl. yaa pcl. `jaa n. `uii-tain n. bugluk n. `hupsi n. `eepik-tain much too much adjs:rcom. -kuu mud n. hitum muddle through vi. `binnam (2) vs:adv. -`bik mushy adj. `juujaa-rəyaa must v:mod. lagi vt. `lagee vs:adv. -ken muddle muddle through through (a (one’s task) life) vt. `mobik-`molik mustard (variety) n. `pəto n. oo-gɨyɨɨ 389 musty odor nice musty odor n. `namee mute adj. gommaa my pro. `ŋokə myna n. `pilam myself pro. `ŋəə n:qual. aɨɨ Mystus spp. n. naarə N nag vt. bəmmee nail (for hammering) n. kilii naked adj. `aŋin vs:adv. -bin - n neighbour n. namdum n. `duurə Neofelis n. holəə nebulosa n. `hɨɨbo-`ɲoree naked (feeling) adj:expr. akak-alak name n. `amin v:c.arg. `minnam Neolissochilus n. `ŋogə hexagonolepis (1) narrate vt. ɨɨnam narrow adj. `adak adj. tagyaa Neolissochilus spp. n. `gahee nerve n. apɨr nervous adj. boso-`kanoo nest n. ahup net (for trapping) n. `əhap netherworld n. `uii-mooraa nettle n. `maɲɨɨ nettle (variety) n. `rəətə never pro:int. `yadɨɨ `locin new adj:mono. -`lii adj. `alii nauseous vi. `balɨɨ navel n. kiinə navel (protruding) n. `kiipok near future n:time. `hɨrum-`allo nearby adj. `nəci nearby (result) vs:adv. -nɨk neck n. `lɨɨgoo n. `lɨɨpoo nectar n. atii need vt. lagi need to v:mod. lagi needle n. `beeji n. `pisi newborn babe nce. cilii newly vs:adv. -piK next dem.pos. `ogo next (time) pos. `gona next year n:time. `luuɲɨɨ nice adj. alə-alə adj. `rəəŋam-rəəŋam vs:adv. -`ken Negative vs:asp. -maa neglectfully vs:adv. -bee 390 night nostalgia night adj. `ayo n:time. `ayo non-kin n. ɲibo Non-subject core realis nominalizer vs:nzr. -nam nightingale (variety) n. `belloo nighttime n:time. `ayo nincompoop n. peccaa-caadɨr nine n:num. `keŋŋaa ninth month n:time. `hɨɨtə nipple n. `cuucɨr no int. maa no man’s n. `moodɨr Non-subject core nominalizer vs:nzr. -ha adj:expr. `təəkoo-`təəloo irrealis non-uniform adj. `kogdɨr-`kogbar non-uniform (colour) ace. `taree nook n. `cəkoo noon n:time. aloo-`loopoo n:time. `loogaa land n. `moodɨr-`moocoo noose n. pogoo noose (of a small animal trap) n. `lagyaa no result vs:advsr. -`ŋaa...-`raa noise n. ado Nominalizer vs:nzr. -nam (Action, (Action, realis) Irrealis) nope int. ma! int. ə-hə! Nominalizer vs:nzr. -ha northern side n:rel. tuudum northward vs:adv. -duu northward (to goal) vs:adv. -`caa nose n. `ɲepum nose (flat) n. `pumjap nose (pointy) n. puŋkii nose (short) n. pumtuu nose (tip) n. pumtup nose (upturned) n. pumduu nose bridge n. `puŋgɨɨ nose piercing n. `puŋkoo nose water n. `pumsi-pumlaa noseache n. `pumci nosebleed n. `idɨɨ nosehair n. `pummə nostalgia n. muugo-`aluk Nominalizer (Dative) vs:nzr. -`ko Nominalizer (Locative) vs:nzr. -`ko Nominalizer (Method) vs:nzr. -`ko Nominalizer (Non-subject Irrealis) vs:nzr. -ha Nominalizer Realis) (Non-subject vs:nzr. -nam core, core, Nominalizer (Oblique) vs:nzr. -`ko Nominalizer (Process) vs:nzr. -`ko Nominalizer (Reason) vs:nzr. -`ko Nominalizer (Subject) vs:nzr. -`na Non-Agentive marker pos. `ne none n:qual. `buppɨɨ none other than n:qual. `daadii non-hill-tribal n. `ɲipak 391 nostril (left) of (same level) nostril (left) n. `pumci nostril (right) n. `pumbək not vs:asp. -maa pcl. moo adv. `ijjaa n:time. `iji nowadays n:time. `hiloo-`məroo adv. `ijjaa notch (in an arrow) n. garək nothing but adv. `oobə notwithstanding pcl. -`dakkom noun n. `amin n. `nəmin-`gomcɨr nude adj. `aŋin nudge vt. `nɨɨnam numb (in mouth) adj. dokum numb (teeth) adj. iikum nurture vt. `honam nut (variety) n. tapər Nycticebus n. hobee-rii Nyishi name. `Ɲɨhɨɨ novelty n. `alii November n:time. lubə now vs:asp. -ku O o pcl. a - o o’clock n. baji October n:time. pɨraa odd adj. aŋo odd (number) n. `pumpek adj. `pumpek O! pcl. go obdurate adj. `ɨlɨɨ-`aapuk obese adj. taŋəə obey vt. `tanam object n. `yaraa object (to something) vs:advs. -ɲɨɨ...-co odd (one out) n. `pumpen v. `pumpen ode n. ɲɨɨtom odiferous adj. boobɨɨ odour n. arə n. boobɨɨ Oblique nominalizer vs:nzr. -`ko obscured vs:adv. -`rup observation vt. `ennam-kaanam observations n. kaanam-`tanam observe (a religion) vt. `kumnam obstinate adj. `ɨlɨɨ-`aapuk obstruct (vision) vi. kaacɨk obviously pcl. `maabə occupy vt. gagnam of pos. `lokə of (a quantity) pos. na of (doing something) vs:nf. -`lapə of (downward) pos. `bokə of (here) dem.pos. `hokə of (same level) pos. `akə 392 of (something just mentioned) open (an umbrella) of (something dem. `əkə dem. `okə just mentioned) n. ɲikam old age n:poet. gɨyəə omelette n. `pɨpə-`ɨtɨɨ omen (at marriage time) n. agam-gaŋkoo of (upward) pos. `tokə of course pcl. `maabə off vs:adv. -`aa off (food) adj. `yaapak off (result) vs:adv. -`pak officer n. ɲigom officiate (as priest) adj. `ɲibo off-season n. dɨrii offshoot n. acəə n. `hɨɨdii omit (from thoughts) vt. məəpen omit (when writing) vt. eppen on vs:val. -`gəə pos. lo vs:val. -kaa on (some hypothetical date) pos. `ne on the other hand pcl. da pcl. `den offspring n. `omə-`orə often vs:adv. -ben vs:adv. -`yar on time vt. impo once n:time. `ləken once (at) adv. `ləken `ə one numr. -`ken n:qual. `ləken n:num. `aken oh int. o oh my! int. a`tii! oi! int. ai! oil n. au oily adj. au okay int. `kəloo int. `kəə one another n:qual. aken-aken one by one n:qual. `aken-`aken one of pos. gonna one or two adj:expr. `aken-`aren one way or another vs:adv. -`bik oneself n:qual. aɨɨ onion (wild) n. `talap only n:qual. `təttə pcl. `ɲum pcl. `mum old adj. `abɨɨ adj. `ako old (man) n. ɲɨjɨɨ-hokam n. ɲɨjɨɨ adj. ɲɨjɨɨ old (non-living) adj:mono. -`ko old (people) n. ɲɨjɨɨ-ɲikam adj. ɲɨjɨɨ-ɲikam onto vs:adv. -ten oops! int. `əəka! open vi. cɨkkok open (an umbrella) vt. `libbor old (woman) adj. ɲikam n. ɲikam-horam 393 open (area) overlseep open (area) adj. `moomen open (door) vt. cɨkkok open (eyes) vt. `ɲɨkpoo adj. `ɲɨkpoo ornaments n. koobuu-`curgen orphan n. `open other n:qual. `kəbə otter n. horam otter skin n. `rampin Otus bakkamoena n. pɨtin ourselves n:qual. aɨɨ-aɨɨ out vs:adv. -`len out (of a fire) vi. ŋinnam (2) out (result) vs:adv. -`pak vs:adv. -hek open (result) vs:adv. -kok open-mouthed adj. goŋkə n. goŋkə operate (a lever) vt. koonam opium n. kaanii opposite (side) n. tagdə opposite side n. cələə-`gona or (else/if not) pcl. maa or (something else) pcl. baa or (something) pcl. baa orange n. umtraa n. untraa out of (a quantity) dem. `okə out-drink vt. `tɨɨpak outlook n. məəpee out-of-control vs:advsr. -rak...-cak vi. ragnam orator n. ɲikok orchid n. `ukpaa-`pendaa order vt. `kanam Ordinal postposition pos. `naabə organize vt. `ɲɨɨnam origin n. `ahɨɨ ornament n. `ain n. `gəmen outside n:rel. `agum over vs:adv. -`boo over (limit) vs:adv. -pok over (side) vs:adv. -pok overbake vt. baaŋek overcook vt. `nuŋek overcook (by baking) vt. baaŋek overcooked vi. `ɲagŋek overcooked (rice) adj. ɲaŋŋek overdo it vs:adv. -kik overflow vs:adv. -pik overheard directly adj. `gombəə overinflate vi. goonam overjoyed adj. `ajar overlseep vi. `yuppo ornament n. gartə n. ɲaarə n. `curgen (variety) n. `takaa-lagbuu n. təkom-ɲaarə n. koobuu n. garop n. tatək n. koopuu-laggoo 394 overly parakeet overly vs:advs. -hup...-yap vs:adv. -`boo owing to n:rel. `ləgaa `bə owl n. `pupə owl (variety) n. pɨtin own vt. bəənam n:qual. aɨɨ-aɨɨ n:qual. aɨɨ overpopulated adj. `adak overpour vt. pɨpik overshadow vt. yubnam overturn vi. kubnam vt. tabnam vi. tabnam owner n:kin. `ato ox n. əbo overturned vs:adv. -tap overwhelmed vi. pumnam Ovis n. holar P pace n. `ləkor pace (step) n:clfq. akor pack vt. pərnam vt. pamnam - p pairwise vs:adv. -`bi palate n. `ɨtɨɨ-`kabduu palm (of the hand) n. `laktam n. lagbor pack (of dogs) n. `kiitɨr package n. `pucəə packet n:poet. `akin packet (variety) n. `pucəə n. `pohum n. kopər palm (variety) n. `tamak pan n. paen pancreas n. bagren pandanus n. korsik n. `tako Padam name. Paadam paddy n. `dolo n. `amo pangolin n. `hocik pant vi. `ŋanam panther (black) n. `ɲokə n. homen-`ɲokə pain n. `aci v:c.arg. `cinam Panthera pardus n. homen-takar Panthera tigris n. homen-`ɲotə n. `hoɲo painful adj. `aci painful (result) vs:adv. -`dɨɨ paint vt. ɨrnam vt. `tiggap papaya n. umbitaa paper n. potaa parakeet n. pəbee 395 paralyze peel paralyze vt. `aamik parcel (of leaves, for baking) n. pamcəə paternal aunt’s son n:kin. `yao paternal uncle n:kin. `ɲaaɲaa path n. bədaa n. inlam parch vt. anam pare vt. ganam parents n:kin. `anə-abo parrot n. pəbee part vt. `peeci vt. `peenam path (cow) n. əpaa patient n. `ɲici patronizingly vs:adv. -`ɲok pauper n. yəmaa paw (rear) n. aar pay vte. dornam pay (for work) vt. joonam peace n. `rəŋam peaceful adj. `rəŋam peach n. `kompə peacock n. pokoo peak n. `kogdɨr pearl millet n. `taek pear-shaped n. `rɨmur-`rɨkee pebble n. `lɨɨcak n. `lɨɨcak-bəree n. `lɨɨyaa-bəree n. `lɨɨyaa n. `lɨɨci-bəree n. `lɨɨcuu n. `lɨɨci n. `lɨɨkə particle n. `apuk particles n:expr. `apuk-`aluk partition vt. `cəpen vt. `pennam vt. `cəpen (2) Partitive pos. `lokə Partitive indefinite pos. `lokə partner vs:nzr. -`jen vs:nzr. -yɨɨ pass vt. ərnam n. `geekoo vs:adv. -po vi. `binnam (2) pass (time) vi. `goonam pass (year) v:c.arg. `ɲɨɨnam pass away vi. ŋeenam pass on vi. ŋeenam past vs:adv. -`boo pasty adj. `keebek pate n. `dumrɨk paternal aunt n:kin. abo n:kin. abo-`ɲijɨr peculiar adj. aŋo Pediculus humanus capitis n. `taɨk peel vt. `karnam vi. liiluk vt. linnam vt. dɨkak vt. dɨnam vi. linnam (2) (2) paternal aunt’s daughter n:kin. `məo paternal aunt’s husband n:kin. `kɨtə 396 peel (a fruit) piggyback peel (a fruit) vt. `lippak peel (skin) vi. bagnam peep vt. `kaaro peep (of baby bird) vi. `cubnam peer vi. `tɨar pellet n. `acɨr pelvic bone (female) n. `tɨɨloo penalty n. guuɲɨɨ n. ajəə perseverant adj. `apek adj:expr. `apek-`arek persevere vs:adv. -kam vt. rɨkam person n. ɲii pestle n. `ciŋii pet vt. mərnam Petaurista n. `hojoo pharmaceuticals n. `dəənə-`poonə phlegm n. `takak Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus n. nanoo-`piiroo penalty (large) n. guuɲɨɨ-`guutə penetrate vs:adv. -bɨk penis n. `makcuu n. `əmak n. `maccuu photograph n. `ɲimaa phrasing n. `gomuk Phyllostachys manii n. tabo pick vt. cinnam (1) vt. tɨnam penis (tip, exposed) n. illə penis buncher n. `magyum penis shield n. `makkup penis tip n. littək Pennisetum glaucum n. `taek perenially vs:adv. -`bəə perfect adj:expr. `apək-`arək adj. `apək pick (using two fingers) vt. `darnam pick up vt. `laarəp vt. `tɨcaa vt. `laacaa Perfect aspectual suffix vs:asp. -kaa perfect! int. lak kaamaa Perfective aspectual suffix vs:asp. -to perfectly vs:adv. -`pək perform ceremony vt. `jurnam perilla n. namduu perilla (black) n. duukaa perilla (white) n. duupuu Permissive imperative vs:mod. -gee Permissive suffix vs:mod. -`hoo picture n. `ɲimaa piece (of a flat-sided object) n:clfq. atak pied harrier n. dookoo-`koocik pierce (ear) vt. `ruukoo pig n. ərək pig latin n. gomraa pig-calling sound int. acuaa pigeon n. pəroo pigeon (variety) n. `kɨji piggyback vt. bɨnam 397 piglet plant (variety) piglet n. `rəkcuu pigpen n. `gumrə pigpen (ground-based) n. `gumpaa vt. tɨnam vt. anam placenta n. nəmam plague n. `rɨlii n. hilii pigskin n. `rəkpin pile vt. `pumnam vt. karnam n. apom n. `apum plague (of rats) n. `buulii plain n. arɨɨ plains n. kodee-deerɨɨ n. deerɨɨ piledrive vt. diinam pillar n. gɨɨtuu pillar (ceremonial) n. poŋgo-kaagoo plait vt. `peenam plait (large) vt. ragnam plait (small) vt. `ponam plan vt. ruunam vi. `pinnam pillar (main) n. dumgɨɨ pillow n. dumpaa pimple n:expr. `abuk-`aruk n. ŋiŋkə-tao (1) plan to vs:mod. -`lapə plane n. roodə plank n. taluu plant n. `hɨɨnə n. `hɨɨnə-`hɨɨbo vt. `lənam pinch n. `ciɲjep vt. `cəbnam vt. habnam vt. ŋinnam pinched (result) vs:adv. -`cəp pine (for something) vt. məəgaa pineapple n. `tako-`bəlaa pinky (toe) n. `ləcəə-`cəi pinky finger n. `cəii pipe n:clf. abuu pipe (smoking) n. `hilum pit n. amə pith (bamboo) n:expr. `apuk-`aluk pity n. ayaa placatingly vs:adv. -`ɲok place n. mooko plant (directly into ground) vt. gɨɨnam plant (variety) n. acin-paarin n. kampɨk n. `daglin n. kokam n. kutur-kumur n. `hɨɨpin n. tooko n. `paak-`iipə n. `taakee nce. gɨyɨɨ n. ramlɨɨ n. `jaakɨr n. `poso 398 plant (variety, edible) pointy (chin) n. `jaayoo n. ɨɨ-`namyaa n. oko n. `əpə-`tarə n. `doraa n. `ogok n. tamə platter (variety) n. `nɨgjok n. `boree play vi. harnam vs:adv. -`men play around (man) vi. ɲaməə-`gɨnam n. `kobuu-`məəkuu n. talee n. jooko n. `hɨɨkaa plaything n. `amen please pcl. `kee pcl. `jaa pcl. ke plant (variety, edible) n. `oin n. marsaa n. `oik n. `ohik n. `pəto n. `əso n. `olap n. `oin-`taapin n. okuu n. `raarə please (someone) vs:adv. -joo pliable vi. `ɲagnam plot vi. `pinnam (1) plow vt. `gɨnam pluck vt. cinnam (1) vt. onam pluck off vt. nennam (2) plug vt. `hɨɨtum stick) plumber’s butt adj. `koobik plump vi. jɨɨnam plunge vt. `ɨbuk vi. `dɨɨnam plant (with planting vt. cinnam (2) plantain grove n. luurɨɨ planting stick n. `ciŋii plastic (bag) n. huruk-harak plate n:clf. `abar n. taalii plunk (oneself down) vi. tənam pockmark n. `acɨr-`abuk n:expr. `abuk-`aruk plate (bamboo) n. `paakuu plateau n. `moobaa n. moorɨɨ pockmarked adj. tagam-`taree pod n:clf. `abuk point (at something) vt. cinnam platform (for ambush-hunting) n. `hɨɨrə (2) point (in an argument) n. agom point (of something sharp) n. potii pointed adj. naŋkii pointy (chin) n. `napkap platform (for fishing) n. `higo platform (observation) n. `gorə platform (resting) n. `gojoo 399 pointy (nose) precisely pointy (nose) adj. puŋkii pointy-chinned adj. `napkap poison n. `dɨgna-`koona vt. `moru possession n. `yaraa possessions n. bəənam-gənam possible vs:adv. -`lak Posttacula alexandri n. pəbee pot n. pɨcɨɨ pot (broken) n. cɨɨtuu potent vi. ɨrnam pound vt. `dɨɨnam vt. pinnam vt. ɨnam vt. kinnam poison (variety) n. moyaa poisoned vs:adv. -ru Polar question marker pcl. `ree pole (wooden) n. `hɨɨtak pomelo n. rəbap pond n. `isi-`hilə n. `hilə (2) (2) poop n. `ee poor adj. ɲimaa pop vt. pugnam vi. `bugnam vs:adv. -`puk pound (using tool) vt. kɨgnam pour vt. `pɨnam pour (to brim) vt. `pɨbɨɨ pour into vt. `pɨlɨk pout vi. `kopər powder n. `amɨk powdery adj. `amɨk power n. `habro practice (doing something) vs:adv. -ŋoo popcorn n. `ambuk n. təpə-buluu popping beetle n. təəkom-`pətək popping corn/maize n. `pədii population n. ɲilum porcupine n. hosi porcupine den n. hiruu porcupine needle n. hosi-`boobii portion n. atuu n. acam praise vt. `meɲjok vt. `koik vt. `iik prawn n. tahum pray vt. `kumnam prayer v. `cənam-beenam n. `yəbə portion (smaller) adj. tuuyaa position vt. `pamnam positioned vi. gənam possess vt. `laanam possess (of spirit or devil) vt. `cinam praying mantis n. `hobin-taraa precious adj. `diɲci precise adj. tarɨk n. tarɨk precisely pcl. `ruu 400 precisely (like) pry vs:adv. -`cəə n:qual. `daadii profession n. ager progenerate vt. nennam (1) progress (time) vi. loonam Prohibitive suffix vs:mod. -yoo promiscuous adj. `yaloo-`loodɨr adj. `yaloo precisely (like) n:qual. `cəə predecessors n:kin. `anə-abo predict (that) pcl. -`lapə preen vi. `janam prefix n. `aacoo pregnant vt. `ao gənam prepare vi. gɨɨnam vt. `monam vs:adv. -noo prompt vt. `rɨhor-`rɨyor prop vt. `tuunam vt. turnam propagate vt. liinam properly vs:adv. -`pək property n. `yaraa proposal (of marriage) n. `tagak Propositional modal suffix vs:mod. -`dee prepare (loom) vt. `poonam prepare (materials for a task) v. `ɲɨɨcoo-`loocoo prepare (materials) vt. `ɲɨɨnam presence n. `amɨr-`amo present adv. `ijjaa press vt. `cəbnam vt. `hɨɨnam pros and cons n. alə-`pomaa prosperous adj. `gɨɨdin-`hɨɨbaa protrude vs:adv. -`koo protruding vs:adv. -tek protruding (forehead) adj. tuppɨk protruding (mouth) adj. nabdoo n. nabdoo pressure (someone) vt. meŋkam pretty adj. `kaaken price n. dam n. arə prick vt. piinam prickly heat n. `ɨrbuk pridefulb adj. `ajɨɨ priest n. `ɲibo proceed vie. innam (1) vi. `moin proud adj. adɨk adj. `ajɨɨ adj. adɨk-ako provide (provisions for event) vt. loonam providence n. agam provoke vt. `menkek prune vt. jennam (2) pry vt. ennam (2) a labor provide for vt. `rɨmɨk-`memmɨk Process nominalizer vs:nzr. -`ko procreate vi. mɨɨnam produce vt. `pɨnam vt. `monam 401 Pseudostachyum polymusphum Question marker (assumptive) Pseudostachyum polymusphum n. tador pumpkin n. talar n. tapə Psilorhynchus n. `ŋopə-pɨree n. `ŋopə spp. punch vt. nɨgnam punch (non-direct) vt. kinnam (2) punch (open-fisted) vt. tənam puncture vi. bukpik punish vs:adv. -`rik vt. `morik n. `ŋoraa-`pakkaa Psittacula himalayana n. pəbee Pterocryptis afghana n. `taek Pteromyinae n. `hojoo pubic hair (anal) n. `yuumə pubic hair (female) n. `tɨɨmə pubic hair (male) n. `magmə public n. kəbaa puke vt. banam pull vt. `henam vt. həənam pupil (of the eye) n. ɲɨgji puppy (dog) n. `kiicuu purchase vt. rənam purpose n. `ləgaa purposefully vs:adv. -dum pus n. `taɲo push vt. `nɨɨnam push (out of the way) vt. `nɨɨyəə push (using tool) vt. `ɲarnam push aside vt. nɨɨyəə push with force vt. `tuunam put vt. tɨnam put (into) vt. `lɨgnam put to sleep vt. mennam (1) Puugoo name. Puugoo puzzled vi. `məəkin-`momin python n. bɨrəm pull (out) vt. `bərnam pull off vt. `pəgnam pull off (completely) vt. `pəkpuu pull out vt. hennam (2) vt. hessek vt. `hellen vt. `pəglen pull up vt. `hecaa pulse n. lagaa pulverize vt. kɨgmɨk vt. `pəəmɨk-`pəəmak vs:adv. -`min vs:adv. -`mɨk Q queasy adj. ɨɨm-əəm vi. `balɨɨ - q Question marker (assumptive) pcl. `rem 402 Question marker (content) reach Question marker (content) pcl. `laa Question marker (polar) pcl. `ree quick adj. bɨɨbaa adj. əccə adj. aen adj. rəccə adj. ardə quiet adj. acc-`accoo adj. `accoo quietly adv. `accoo `bə quill n. hosi-`boobii quit vt. `əpak vt. `tonam vi. `ŋagnam quickly vs:adv. -baa vs:adv. -gor adv. `lələ vs:adv. -baa quite adjs:der. -`jaa quiver (arrow container) n. gebbuu R rabbit n. kəhuu race (of heart) vi. pokkik racing-striped adj. `bissok radiate vi. `louu raft n. hipə rag n. `jein rail n. `ragree rain n. ɲidoo rainbow n. agree-`googee rainy adj. ɲidoo rainy season n:time. `lobo raise vt. oonam vs:adv. -en vt. `honam - r rapscallion n. yapci raptor n. dookoo raptor (variety) n. pɨmə rat n. `kobuu n:poet. `buin rat (variety) n. `uii-`kobuu n. kɨrtə-pumpaa n. pii-nabbuu n. `buupii rather (than) vs:adv. -`yaa ratskin n. `buupin raven n. `paak raven (flock of) n. `aktɨɨ raw vi. rinnam (1) adj. `leelak raise (platform) vt. `gonam randomly vs:advsr. -poo...-yoo range vs:nzr. -`do range (of mountains) n:clf. ayor ranger n. `tumpə-ɲigam raw (skin) vi. bagnam razed adj. abin-akak adj. abin reach vt. `pɨɨnam vi. `cinam 403 reach (something by stretching for it) release vi. `pɨɨci vs:adv. -`pɨɨ vs:adv. -`ci rectangular adj. `adɨr red adj. lɨɨcɨɨ v:c.arg. lɨɨnam adj. yalɨɨ adj. mɨrlɨɨ reach (something by stretching for it) vt. comci read vt. ponam vt. `pori red hair n. dumlɨɨ red jungle fowl n. `pɨrsin red jungle fowl cock n. himpo red jungle fowl hen n. `hinnə red rice n. `baalɨɨ red squirrel n. kəlɨɨ redbreasted parakeet n. pəbee reddened adj. mɨrlɨɨ reddish adj. yalɨɨ-yabo adj:expr. `yamuk-`yaruk readily vs:adv. -təə ready (of food) vi. `nunam ready oneself vi. gɨɨnam real adj. aj`jaa n:qual. `jaa adj. aljaa adj. `majjaa really adj. `jijjaa vs:adv. -jaa adj. `majjaa adjs:der. -`jaa red-eyed adj. ɲɨglɨɨ redwhiskered bulbul n. bekko reed (variety) n. tador refer (to) vie. əmnam refill vt. `pɨtəm reflect vt. `məədii reflection n. `yəəyɨɨ-paacaa n. `ɲimaa reason vs:nzr. -din n. `ləgaa n. `ləgɨɨ-`ləgaa Reason nominalizer vs:nzr. -`ko reasonable (in price) adj. homə reborn vi. liiluk rebuke vt. `roorik receding (hairline) adj. `tublok recently n:time. `hiloo-`məroo n:time. `hɨrum-`hɨro Reflexive suffix vs:val. -hi regard vt. alə region n. `ayap regularly vs:adv. -`bəə vs:adv. -ŋoo reciprocal labor n. rɨgee reciprocally vs:advs. -`ko...-pek vs:adv. -lɨk reimburse vt. joonam reject vt. arə relatively largest portion adj. `tuutə release vi. bennam (2) recklessly vs:adv. -rak vs:advsr. -rak...-cak recognize (someone) vt. `kaacen 404 release (something under tension) rice (bridal, ceremonial) vt. `taanam vt. `tonam vs:adv. -bek respond vt. `menrɨk vs:val. -rɨk rest vi. ŋanər vi. `əənam release (something under tension) vt. `mobek release (water) vs:adv. -jum religion n. ai-agam remain vs:adv. -bəə vs:adv. -`yɨɨ resting area (elders/guests) n. ɲoodəə resting area (female guests) n. dəətuu resting area (unmarried people) n. uduu remainder vs:adv. -ŋoo n. `ahik-`akek n:qual. aken-aren resting area (women’s) n. `ɲoosi n. `ɲoosi-`peŋkoo remember vt. `məəpaa remit vte. dornam remove (part from whole) vt. `bennam restless adj. akər-doomər adj:expr. ajər-amər resume vs:adv. -bəə retaliate vs:val. -rɨk retch vt. banam return vt. `aakur vs:adv. -`kur rend vt. `bɨnam render vt. arnam renegade adj. `yaloo renounce vt. `pagnam repair vs:adv. -`ten vt. `moten reveal vt. `meŋkak `menlak vs:advsr. -kak...-lak Reversive (passive) suffix repay vt. joonam repeat vt. `mendii reply vt. gogrɨk request vt. `konam resemble vt. gərɨk adj. `garɨɨ vs:val. -`ko revolting vs:advs. -lum...-yəə rheume n. hɨgyaa rhinoceros n. horak Rhyticeros undulatus n. `gaaree rib n. aup riband n. pason ribcage n. aup ribs n. aup rice (bridal, ceremonial) n. ɲaaɲam-acin resent vt. məəɲɨɨ resin n. `abak resolutely adjs:der. -`jaa Resolutive pcl. -`m resolved vt. `jubnam 405 rice (cooked) ritual object (variety) rice (cooked) n. acin rice (crisped) n. `ciŋkam rice (dud) n. `amyaa rice (failed) n. `amsuk rice (fermented) n. `poonə rice (flattened) n. `amci rice (for planting) n. `amkoo rice (new) n. `amlii rice (red) n. `baalɨɨ rice (ripe) n. `amee rice (scraps) n. ciŋŋar rice (sticky) n. `ampee rice (surface starch) n. cimpɨk rice (uncooked) n. `ambin rice beer n. `opoo rice beer (black) n. `pooro n. `pookaa vt. `laapak ride vt. jugnam right pos. `əm right ear n. `ruubək right hand n. `lagbək right leg/foot n. `ləbək rightside up vs:adv. -lek ring n. lakcup ring (ears) adj. ruugok ring finger n. cəəyɨr ringworm n. `tamor Rinoceros unicornis n. horak rip vi. `jennam (2) vt. `jennam (2) rip (in two) vt. `jettuu rip (result) vs:adv. -`cek rip up vt. `pemmɨk-`pemmak ripe vi. ŋinnam (1) vi. kamnam rice beer (prime) n. odaa n. `poodaa rice beer (second) n. orɨɨ n. `poorɨɨ ripple vi. bɨɨnam rise vie. `caanam vi. goonam rice beer (white) n. `ɲogrin rice flour n. `ɨtɨɨ rice husk n. `ampə rice packet n. kopen rice powder n. `amin rice stalk (post-harvest) n. `amroo rich n. `ɲitə adj. `ɲitə rise (steam) vi. `huunam rise (sun) vi. `uucaa rising slope n. `caatuu rising sun n. `caato-dooɲi ritual (variety) n. pombek-`beppak n. `laayap rich (person) n. `ɲirəm rid vs:adv. -`pak vt. `pagnam ritual chant (variety) n. `kaatə ritual object (variety) n. dumci-rɨlek 406 ritual objects rotten odor n. `murkoo-goodaa n. `lubər n. `əbak n. `ɨrɨɨ n. `luppee n. pəɲap n. bootuu n. `luppii n. dumci roll into packet vt. `pohum-`humnam roll up vt. `ponam vi. tinnam vt. kokər (2) roll up (mat) vt. tinnam (2) roll wheel vt. bonam rolled up adj:expr. `potum-`polek roof n. `mɨɨloo roof (of a grave) n. tai-`boojup roofing beam (horizontal) n. kaajam n. `kabjen ritual objects n. dɨpə river n. `hibuu n. abuu riverbank n. `buuyɨr riverine island n. `bokpen road n. bədaa road (base) n. `bəkoo road (main) n. `bənə road (old) n. `bəko roam vi. `ŋagnam vi. `ŋagmen vi. `hornam roofpost n. turgɨɨ roomy adj. horoo roost n. `pərəə rooster n. `rokpo root n. `həəguu n. `hɨɨpɨr-`hɨɨmaa nce. `hɨɨmaa n. `hɨɨpɨr n. raapɨr n. raapɨr-raamaa n. apɨr n. apɨr-amaa rock n. `ɨlɨɨ rodent n. `kobuu rodent (jungle-dwelling) n. takə-koocəə roll vt. `rəgnam vt. rennam vt. `tiggap (2) rope n. ohoo rope (length) n. `hoaa n. pogaa roll (ball) vt. ŋurnam vi. dugnam rot vi. yaanam rotate vi. pərnam vt. pərnam vt. jərnam roll (over, in bed) vi. kənam roll (wheel) vt. loonam vi. loonam roll around vi. bogoo rotten adj. `yaapak rotten odor n. `namyaa 407 rotten wood satiated (by eating) rotten wood n. `hɨɨyaa rotund adj. `atum roughly vs:adv. -koo vs:advsr. -koo...-loo rub off vt. nərpuu rufous turtle dove n. `taakə rufousfnecked hornbill n. `pɨhik rufousthroated hill partridge n. `pɨmuu round ace. `liilum adj. `apə-`liilum adj. pəgoo adj. `apə rugged (terrain) adj. `moodɨr ruin vt. `moyaa rumble v:c.arg. gumnam run vi. jugnam run (at the mouth) vi. jəənam run (away) vi. kennam (2) run over vt. `rəgnam rust n. `mamor rustle adj. ribii-roboo row n. `horii vt. koonam rub vt. mərnam vt. nennam vt. nərnam (2) rub (clean) vt. mərkak rub (something onto body) vt. ɨrnam rub (with tool) vt. `kennam (2) vt. nərnam S sacrifice vt. `palɨk sacrificial animal n. `yɨɨdum sage n. ɲikok salad days n:time. `omor salinity n. `kɨɨcɨk saliva n. tacur salt n. alo salt cellar n. loduu salt deposit n. hoi saltiness n. `kɨɨcɨk salty adj. `kɨɨcɨk Sambar n. hocər - s same adj. ləyyɨɨ same one n:qual. `aken sand n. `hilii n. `balii n. `lɨɨmɨk sandal n. `korom sap n. `abak sarong n. bəcək sash n. pason satiate vt. `monəə satiated vs:adv. -nəm satiated (by eating) vi. donəm 408 satisfied scurry satisfied vt. məəpɨɨ adj. məəpɨɨ vs:adv. -nəə Schizothorax spp. n. ŋorɨɨ scold vt. buunam vt. roonam satisfy vs:adv. -pɨɨ vt. pɨɨnam scoop vt. `hugnam vt. `yumnam satisfying adj. amuaa savage vi. `leenam saw vt. `henam vt. ɨɨnam n. ɨɨtuu scoop (by hand) vt. `cumnam scoop (measurement) n. `paakii scoop (rice) vt. toonam scoop (using stick) vt. ennam (2) scoop liquid vt. agnam scoot vi. `əənam vi. əgnam say vie. əmnam vie. `mennam vt. `mennam scale vie. ganam scale (for weighing) n. `kuun score vt. `bɨgnam score (length) vt. `hognam scorpion n. `tarum scrap (of wood) n:expr. pacək-parək `naana scales n. ahɨk scallion n. `talap scaly anteater n. `hocik scan vt. tuunam scan (in all directions) vt. `kaakee scrape vt. rennam (2) vt. ognam vt. `labnam vt. kanam vt. `ginnam vt. gaanam `kaee scare off vt. `denlom vt. looden (2) scrape (with tool) vt. nərnam scraps (resulting from bark) n. hɨrjek scratch vt. gaanam scream vi. `kunam screwed up vi. `rɨmur-`rɨkee scrotum n. ɨttum scrub vt. `kennam (2) scum n. `apik scurry vs:advsr. -dik...-ik stripping scat! int. ase! scatter vt. `pagnam vi. pokcik vs:adv. -par pogik scattered vs:advsr. -cɨk...-yɨk vs:adv. -jəə adj. ajəə scent n. `ahuk scheme vi. `pinnam (1) Schistura n. `riibo 409 scuttle sequester scuttle vs:advsr. -dik...-ik seal vi. geenam sealed vs:adv. -kap search vt. manam season vt. nəənam season (dish) vt. ciɲyom seasoned (wood) adj. `ərəə seat n. `joŋkii n. `joŋkii-muraa segregate vt. `darnam select vt. gagnam self n:qual. aɨɨ selfish vs:adv. -`bin vi. məəjin adj:expr. akee-aree sell vt. `pugnam selves n:qual. aɨɨ-aɨɨ Semblative pos. `bə semen n. `maglaa n. yolaa second maternal aunt n:kin. moroo second maternal uncle n:kin. kɨroo second month n:time. `aglo secret away vt. `kahi section vs:nzr. gajek section (of bamboo) n:clf. aduu secure vt. `tuunam sediment (in rice beer) n. `pookik see vt. `kaapaa see (clearly) vt. `kaapək see (how it goes) vs:adv. -kaa seed n. `acɨr n. alii n. ampɨr n. amə Semiplotus semiplotus n. `orcəə send vt. `kanam vte. `jilɨk sense vt. `ennam (1) senseless vs:adv. -kum sentence n. `gomuk separate vs:adv. -`pen adj. acəə vs:adv. -`mee adj. anɨr vt. `tarnam separate (from a group) v. `pumpen seed (heirloom) n. alii seed (of a chili pepper) n. `lugmə seed corn/maize n. pəlii seed grains n. `amkoo seed holes n. `dəree seeds n. alii-anə seem vs:adv. -`lin seems pcl. `ben separate (inner and outer layers of a stalk) vt. innam (2) separate (inner and outer layers of stalk) vs:adv. -`ik separate (part from whole) vt. `bennam September n:time. `hɨɨtə sequence n. `horii sequential adj. `təərum sequester vt. adək 410 serve shave (with razor) serve vt. `rɨmɨk-`memmɨk serve (as servant) vt. `rɨraa-doraa sesame n. `duujap sesame (white) n. `namji set vt. anam vt. `pamnam shake vt. əgnam shake (result) vs:adv. -den shake one’s head vi. `baapak shall I vs:mod. -`dee shallow adj. uujii adj. uuyaa adj. rɨɨyaa set (of twenty) n. `ɲilap set (sun) vie. aanam set down vt. `tɨtuu set fire to (a house) vt. `romlɨk set out vi. `inlen set up vt. `reenam setting sun n. `pɨɨpok-dooɲi settle vt. `meɲjup settle (dispute) vt. `meɲjup settled vs:adv. -`jup seven n:num. `kanə seventh month n:time. `tenloo sew vt. omnam shack n. `naakum shade n. `amɨr-`amo n. `dooɲum shallow (point of a stream) n. bɨj-reerə shaman n. `ɲibo shame n. `aɲɨɨ shapeless adj. `adɨr-abar vs:adv. -por shard n. tagjek share vt. ornam sharp vi. rennam (2) vs:adv. -rek adj:expr. `apək-`arək sharp (blade) adj. arek sharp (point) adj. naŋkii sharp (result) vs:adv. -kii sharpen vt. ɲamnam vt. `pɨnam vt. `pɨrek vt. `pɨrek vt. `morek shadow n. `yəəyɨɨ-paacaa n. `ɲimaa shady (side of a mountain) n. mooyaa n. mooyum sharpen (by striking) vt. pakii sharpen (by whittling) vt. nakkii sharpening stone n. `lɨɨpə shatter vt. `moup shave vt. ɨnam vt. rennam shaft shaft (of (of a a headed headless arrow) arrow) n. `pukkoo n. `pugjɨr (2) shaft (of a tipped arrow) n. mokoo shave (with razor) vt. `ɨpuu 411 shavings shuttle shavings n. hɨrjek shavings (wood) n. `riipuu she/he pro. `bɨɨ sheath vt. `lijjup vt. `ijjup shiny adj:expr. lɨglɨk-laglak shirt n. lalɨk shit n. `ee vi. `eenam shock vt. buunam vs:val. -`lom vi. `lomnam sheath (hardcover) n. buktak sheath (softcover) n. `hobuk sheathed vi. `lijjup vi. `ijjup shoe n. jamtak shoo! int. us! shoot vt. `abnam shop n. dukan shore n. ayɨr n. rɨɨyɨr shed vi. liiluk sheep n. holar sheer adj. ərak adj. `ragdɨɨ sheet (of paper, e.g.) n:clf. abor sheet (of wall, e.g.) n:clfq. apee shelf (hanging) n. `poobo shelf (suspended) n. bəjo n. `bərap n. `bərak short adj. adəə short (bamboo) adj:mono. -dəə short (leg) adj. `lədəə short (mouth) adj. naptuu short (nose) adj. pumtuu shortcut n. iɲcek bədaa shortened vs:adv. -cek should pcl. `pəna shoulder n. ləəbɨɨ shoulder strap n. aen shout vi. `ugnam vi. jəənam vi. rumnam shellfish n. tahum shield n. `hotam shield (the eyes) vt. tɨcɨk hinam shift (position) vi. `əənam shift position vs:adv. -`ci shimmy vi. urnam shin n. `ləpaa shine vt. `dornam vt. tuunam vi. `louu vi. uunam shovel vt. tubnam show vte. kaatom shrub n. yaŋgam shrug (lips) adj. `nabbik n. `nabbik shine (result) vs:adv. -`dor shingle vt. kabnam shining downward adj. `uuloo shuttle n. `tapin 412 shy six years ago shy adj. `aɲɨɨ-`aso adj. `aɲɨɨ sinew n. `apə-remmo sing vi. gognam sing (“kaben”) vt. kabnam sing (bird) vi. kabnam sing (lullabye) v:c.arg. miinam singe vt. baanam single n:qual. `aken sink vi. `jɨɨlɨk vi. jɨɨnam Siang name. Hiaa sibling (younger) n:kin. `abɨr siblings (younger) n. aci-`abɨr Sichuan pepper n. oɲor sickly (of fowl) vi. dinnam (1) side n:rel. `peeləə n. kalam n:clfq. atak n. cəlam nce. cələə n. kalam sip vt. tɨɨkaa Siphonaptera n. talii sister (elder) n:kin. aɲi sister (eldest) n. aɲi-kai n. aɲi-abɨɨ side (flat) n. `atam side road n. bəgur sideburn n. `himoo sidesaddle vi. `əədɨr sideways vs:adv. -`dɨr sigh vi. `hagɨɨ sightless adj. ɲɨgmaa silence n. `jimii silent adj. `jimii silver n. `murkoo similar adj. ləyyɨɨ similar to vs:adv. -`rɨɨ simply pcl. `ɲum pcl. `təgəə pcl. `mum vs:adv. -mum vs:adv. -`məm sister (younger) n:kin. `abɨr-`ɲijɨr sister-in-law n:kin. `bərnə sister’s daughter n:kin. `məo sister’s husband (eldest) n:kin. `maktə sister’s husband’s younger brother n:kin. magii sister’s son n:kin. `yao sit vi. `duunam vi. tənam sit up(right) vi. `duen sitting area (father’s) n. `baago six numr. -kə n:num. akkə six days ago n:time. keɲjur-aloo six days hence n:time. `teŋkur six times n:time. ləkkə six years ago n:time. keɲjur simultaneously vs:nf. -`ləə since (a past time) pos. `gə `lokə sine (wave) adj. `təguu 413 six years hence slow six years hence n:time. `teŋkur n:time. `teɲjur slave (male) n. `pagbo sleep vi. `yubnam sleep (like a log) vi. `yupkik sleep with vt. doogə sleepy adj. `yumii sleeve n. lɨgbuu slender (waist) n. `kiicik slice n:clfq. ajek vt. kɨɨnam six-angled weave n. `poɲik sixth month n:time. `ilo skeleton n. aloo-pookoo n. pookoo skewer vt. riinam n. `ɨkoo skewer (metal) n. hootii skewer (wood) n. `hɨɨkoo skillfully vs:advsr. -kii...-rii skin vt. dɨnam n. `apin slice off vt. peerik slide vt. `ləgnam vi. runam vi. `əənam skin (of fruit) n. akuk skin (tiger) n. `ɲopin skirt n. `galəə vt. yɨgnam n. əbə n. bəcək slide down vi. `ruloo slip vi. `ləbnam slip on (dirtying) vi. `haŋgek slippery adj. `alap slit (in floor) n. `uugee slither vi. ɨɨnam slope n. rɨɨjoo n. əttam n. `iituu skirt (around edges) vs:adv. -yɨr skirt (long, black) n. `bəkə skirt (old) n. `bəko skirts (of a clearing) n. `jɨrji skirts (of an object) n. iɲyɨk skull n. dumpoo-aloo sky n. taləə n:poet. mədo slope (sheer) n. tagbaa sloping adj. `pajom sloping-mouthed adj. `nabjom sloppily vs:advsr. -`jok...`yok vs:advs. -puk...-ree vs:adv. -`jok slam vt. tubnam slanted (eyes) adj. `ɲɨgmii slap vt. cɨɨnam slap (on the back) vt. `cɨɨpop slate n. `lɨɨyaa slave (female) n. `pagnə slouch vi. kɨɨnam slow adj. `rəəŋam-rəəŋam adj. alə-alə adj. `dəməə adj. `rəŋam 414 slow (movement) sneak slow (movement) adj. `dəŋom adj. `dəŋom-`dələə smoke vt. tɨɨnam n. `mɨkə sludge vt. hɨɨnam slur n. rojam v:expr. rojam-royam smoke-dry vt. `aahen smoky adj. `mɨkə smoky (complexion) n. `məi smoulder vi. ɨrcɨɨ snack n. `domen vt. `domen n. dopak n. tɨɨpak slurp vt. buunam slut (male) n. `taloo small adj. ajjii adj:mono. -yaa adj. ammee adj:mono. -ɲi adj:mono. -jii adj. aɲɲii adj. ayaa snail n. `tano n. `tahɨr-`taɲo n. `tahɨr small intestine n. kiijɨɨ smallpox n. `tabum n. `rambuk snake n. tabə snake (small) n. `bɨci snake (variety) n. bɨpɨk n. bɨrɨɨ n. bɨhɨɨ n. `isi-`bɨci n. bərtaa n. bɨkɨɨ n. bɨlɨɨ n. `bɨtə n. bɨdoo n. `roorə n. tabə-dumii smart adj. ardə adj:expr. ɨrɨɨ-ərəə smash vt. pəəyak vt. `moup vt. tubnam vt. panam vt. kɨgnam smash (glass) vt. `pəup smash up vt. pəətuu-pəəyuu smell vt. huunam vi. huunam vt. `namnam snap vs:adv. -`pin vi. `binnam vt. `binrik vt. `binnam (1) (1) smelly adj. boobɨɨ smile vi. ɲɨrnam n. ɲɨrsum-pomum n. ɲɨrsum snap (by cutting) vt. peerik snap (in two) vt. `bintuu snatch vt. tɨgrek vt. `laarek smiling adj. ɲɨrsum-pomum adj. ɲɨrsum sneak vi. `ronam vt. `gɨnam 415 sneaky sort of vi. `jinnam vi. `runam (1) solicit vt. bonam solicit (reciprocal labour) v:c.arg. eenam vi. `jinnam-`runam sneaky adj. acc-`accoo sneeze n. `kaji vi. `kaji some pos. `lokə n:qual. atuu dem. `əkə snore onom. ŋarak snot n. `talap snout n. nabbuu snow n. tapam snow trout n. ŋorɨɨ so cnj. əmnamə dem. `əgə somebody pro. ɲii someday adv. `ləken `ne somehow adj. dadə-murə vs:advsr. -`bik...-`lik vs:adv. -`bik someone pro. ɲii something pro. `yoogo sometime n:time. `ləken-`ləken sometimes adv. `ləken `ne son n:kin. `orə son (youngest) n. `taii song n. `gaan song (variety) n. dəloo n. `yaanə n. kaben so (that something would happen) pos. `bə so then cnj. əmbə-rɨnamə soak vt. pomnam soaked adj. `juujaa-rəyaa soap stone n. `niinii soar vi. `dəənam sober adj. `paabak adj:expr. `paabak-`tarak son-in-law n:kin. magbo son-in-law son-in-law (elder) (younger) n:kin. magbo-kai n:kin. magbo-ayaa soft adj. `rəmap adj. `rəɲak soft (rice) vi. `ɲagnam soft spot (near ear) n. ruuken soil n. kodee n. `jiimi soon n:time. `hɨrum-`allo vs:adv. -daa soil (animal/insect-discharged) n. apik sophomore n. yao sorcerer n. `ɲibo sorghum n. tatii-naanii sorry! int. əəs! sort of dem. `həkə Solanum indicum n. baakə Solanum sp. n. pətaa-`baakə sole (of foot) n. `lətam 416 soul spindly soul n. yalo n. yaji-yalo speech n. agom speech-impaired vi. `koŋaa-`koraa sound v:c.arg. dunam n. ado soup n. alaa sour adj. `kuucuk source pos. `lokkə sour-smelling adj. `naŋkuu southern side n:rel. `tuukoo southward vs:adv. -bok sow vt. `pagnam sow (boar) n. `ranə soybean n. `peyak soybean (fermented) n. `agyaa spacious vs:adv. -roo adj. horoo speechless adj:expr. `koŋaa-`koraa speed vi. `dəbnam speedy adj. rəcəə adj. aen adj. bɨɨbaa adj. əccə adj. rəccə spell n. romlee n. `yəbə sperm n. `maglaa n. yolaa sphere n. `apə spherical adj. `apə adj. `apə-`liilum span (of a forearm) n:clfq. adu spark n. `məci-`məree sparrow n. `pucup n. `pucup-pərəə sphincter (anal) n. `eerin spice up vt. nəənam spicy adj. `au spider n. `tatum-`beelum Spilanthes paniculata n. marsaa spill vi. `hurnam spill (result) vs:adv. -`hur spill (while pouring) vt. `pɨŋar spilled (result) vs:adv. -ŋar spin vi. jərnam vi. yennam vt. jərnam sparrow hawk n. dookoo-`koocik speak vi. `mennam speak (a language) vt. `mennam speak indiscriminately vt. `meŋkek speak ironically vt. `menəə speak to vt. `mennam spear n. nəəbuu n. `dɨɨbuu (2) spin (cotton) v:c.arg. `cagnam spinal sinew n. `gaahee spindly adj:expr. `ahor-`ayor adj:expr. akək-arək speckled wood pigeon n. kɨar spectacles n. `ɲɨgor 417 spine (lower) squeeze spine (lower) n. `ɲocəə spinster n. `muŋku spirit n. `uii spirit (river) n. `bɨro n. `biikə vt. `pennam vt. `toonam vt. `taanam vi. geenam vt. mərnam vi. mɨɨnam vt. punuam vs:adv. -cɨk (2) spread vs:adv. -par spirit (variety) n. pomji-kaaji n. `gutə-yapom n. `bɨru spit v:c.arg. curnam spitefully vs:adv. -ken spittle n. tacur splashed (result) vs:adv. -cɨk splay-legged adj. `kotaa splinter n. acək-parək n:expr. acək-arək n. tao n. pacək spread (disease) vt. `ɲognam spread (rhizome) vi. `ənam spread (the hands) vt. `gaanam spread (with hand) vt. ɨrnam spread (to dry) vt. `lonam spread-eagled vi. gellek spring n. `higur vi. bennam n. jugɨr (2) splintered (result) vs:adv. -cək split vt. tagnam vt. `tarnam spring (of a small animal trap) spring onion n. `talap sprout vie. `caanam vi. `bugnam vi. puunam vi. `ɨrnam split (along length) vt. ceenam split (bamboo) vt. deenam split (by pulling) vt. `giitar split (ear) adj. ruujak split (nose) adj. pumjak split apart vt. pɨktak split apart down middle (result) vs:adv. -`tar spurn vt. arə vt. `yəənam spy vs:adv. -`ro spy (listening) vt. `taro spy (looking) vt. `kaaro squash n. tapə n. talar splitwise vs:adv. -`kok Spondias pinnata n. `dərgee spoon n. `kotuu spotted munia n. `picik spray vi. `toonam squat adj. `atum-`alik vi. `humtuu squeeze vt. ɲumnam 418 squirrel stew squirrel n. takə squirrel (red) n. kəlɨɨ squirrel (variety) n. `kəkoo stab vt. nɨgnam stab (underhand) vt. `ɲaanam stable vs:adv. -gap vs:advs. -`cɨɨ...-`bək stay vi. `duunam steal vt. coonam vt. coorek vt. donam steal (someone else’s wife) n. ɲaŋgoo-rennam stealthily adv. `accoo stealthy vi. `jinnam-`runam vi. `ruhi adj. `accoo stack vt. `paanam stack (long things) vt. `kumnam staff (of bananas, e.g.) n:clf. `arɨɨ stagger vi. `yəənam stairs n. `koobaa stalk vt. `ronam stallion n. reebo stammer vt. `goŋkak stand vi. `dagnam standing standing (with (with knees locked) legs splayed) adj. `dajup adj. `dataa steam n. `doohuk vt. `məmnam steam (in bamboo) vt. pɨɨnam steep adj. `ragdɨɨ vs:adv. -tuu adj. ərak steep (road) vi. `caatuu stem n. `anə n. `agnə stem (lower portion) n. `nərɨɨ stem (of a chili pepper) n. `lukkoo stench n. `namsuu n. boobɨɨ star name. Toopo n. takar starchy adj. `keebek start adjs:rcom. -rəp vs:adv. -rəp step n. `ləkor vi. kornam vt. hamnam start (an engine) vs:adv. -bek startle vs:val. -`lom vi. `lomnam vi. `lomrəp step (down) vi. korloo step (high) vi. daanam step (out) vi. korlen step (up) vi. korcaa step on vt. hamten sternum n. `kəəcuu stew vt. deenam vt. `raanam starvation n. `yarɨɨ n. hicin-domaa state n. amoo-`alap Stative aspectual suffix vs:asp. -do 419 stick straight stick vt. `yegnam n. `hɨɨdaa stone (soft) n. `lɨɨyaa stone (variety) n. `lɨor stone (white) n. `lɨɨpuu stone heap n. `lɨɨpom stoned vs:adv. -kum stoned (from eating something) adj. dokum stick (to something) vt. `yeggap stick out (from a surface) vi. `caakoo stick to (result) vs:adv. -`kap sticky rice n. `ampee still adv. kambəə vs:adv. -bəə stoned (from inhaling something) adj. tɨɨkum still more vs:adv. -`yaayaa stillborn vi. jagnam stilts n:expr. daakoo-daaloo sting vt. ponam stinger n. `lətək stingy adj. `yacəp stink vi. huunam stinky adj. `namsuu stir vt. ɲuunam stirring stick n. puɲi stoke vt. `middor vt. `parnam stool n. kuŋkee n. keepaa stool (seat) n. `duupər stop by/off vt. impek stop up (a container) vt. `hɨɨtum storage n. `agəə store vt. `acɨɨ vt. ruunam n. dukan stored away vs:advs. -`kum...-cəə storeroom n. `kagrɨɨ storm n. doogum-doorə n. doorə-doogum stomach n. akii n. aek story n. `dooyɨɨ stout adj. `atum adj. `atum-`alik stomp vt. cumnam stone n. `ɨlɨɨ n:poet. `pɨllɨɨ stow vt. `kacɨɨ vs:adv. -`cɨɨ stone (black) n. `lɨɨkə stone (blue) n. `lɨɨkər stone (green) n. `lɨɨcum stone (hard) n. `lɨɨtor stone (igneous) n. `lɨɨkaa stone (sharpening) n. `lɨɨpə straddling vs:adv. -`kok straggle vi. `rəyɨɨ vi. `duuyɨɨ straggler n:qual. aken-aren straight adj. horii adj. horii-pikii 420 straightened stumble adj. loodaa strip (of bamboo) n. `peecəə-tarə strip (of clothing) n. gajek stripe n. `bissok striped adj. yagoo-`yaree striped (many) adj:expr. `bissok-`bibbok straightened vs:adv. -`jin vs:adv. -`dam strain (to hear) vt. `tajin strange adj. aŋo strap (infant-carrying) n. `epen strap (shoulder, for a blade sheath) n. aen striped (single) adj. `bissok striped big cat n. `ɲoree stripped clean (bone) adj. aloo-pookoo stream n. kocəə strength n. `addɨɨ Streptopelia orientalis n. `taakə stretch vi. `kəjin-`kətaa vi. `kəjin vi. `jinnam vi. `aajin stroke vt. mərnam stroll vi. `immen strong vi. tornam adj. `aci adj. `addɨɨ (1) vi. `aajin-aataa stretch (body) vi. comnam stretch (legs) adj. `tuhor-`ləyor stretch (of road, e.g.) n:clfq. atək stretch out vs:advs. -`jin...-`taa stretched (legs) adj. `ləjin stretched out vs:adv. -`jin strike vt. panam strike a pose vi. cənam striking vs:adv. -`hɨr string vt. riinam string bean n. peeren string of objects n. `horii stringy adj:expr. `ahor-`ayor strip vt. hɨrnam vt. pɨgnam strong (man) adj. `ɲigaa strongarm (someone into coming) vt. bokam (-`bojəə) strum vt. bennam (2) stub (one’s toe) vi. dəktup hinam stubborn adj. `ɨlɨɨ-`aapuk stub-legged adj. `lətuu stuck vs:adv. -`yek vs:advs. -jik...-ak stuck fast vs:adv. -gap stud n. alii stud (horse) n. reelii studies n. `pori study v:c.arg. `rinam vt. `pori stuff n. `yaraa stumble vi. `daanam strip (cane) vt. `pinnam 421 stump (of a tree) support stump (of a tree) n. `hɨɨtuu stun vs:adv. -nər vt. dɨgnam vt. `monər vt. `muunam suck (nectar) vt. tiinam suck dry vt. buujin suckerfish n. tacap-buugap suddenly adv. `ləken `ə suffice vi. pɨɨnam vs:adv. -pɨɨ stutter vt. `goŋkak vi. `koŋak n. `goŋkak sty n. `ɲɨkci stylish v. `janam-`gamnam vi. `janam sufficient vi. pɨɨnam suffix n. aatəm sugarcane n. `tabə suit vt. `jubnam vt. `gəlin vs:adv. -`lin stymied vi. `məəkin-`momin Subansiri n. hiɲik subdued adj. `rəŋam subject n. agom-ai Subject nominalizer vs:nzr. -`na subject to taboo vi. arə Subjunctive pcl. `bə submerge vt. `lumnam vt. `goolup vs:adv. -`lup summarize vt. `meɲcek summer n:time. `dɨgo summit n. puutuu n. `moodii-puutuu sun n:poet. `jiitə n. dooɲi submit vt. `tonam Subsequential suffix vs:nf. -`lee subset n. acam n. apar sun (poetic) n. `jɨɨtə-`taatə sun-dry vt. `lonam sunken (checks) adj. `mookop-`moorop substance n. `həəguu succeed (in birth order) vt. ninnam sunken (cheeks) adj. `mookop adj:expr. `mookop-`moorop (2) success n. agam successful adj. `gɨɨdin-`hɨɨbaa successfully vs:adv. -gam such (that something happens) pos. `bə sunken (mouth) n. `napkap sunlight n. dooɲi-`louu sunny adj. dooɲi v:c.arg. ɲinam supplant vs:adv. -ten supplicate vt. `cənam supplication v. `cənam-beenam support vs:adv. -hɨɨ suck vt. buunam 422 support (blindly) sympathy vt. rɨɨnam sweep vt. pəgnam vt. pennam support (blindly) vt. `gamnam support (from the side) vt. tərnam suppose pcl. `bəree sure int. `kəloo sure (that) pcl. ɲino surpass vs:adv. -`pak vs:adv. -`koo (2) sweep away vt. `pegaa sweep clean vt. pekkak vt. peppuu sweep foot vt. dəgnam sweet adj. tiihir vi. tiinam surplus vi. ŋennam (2) surround (with fencing) vt. raggoo vt. `peggoo vt. raggoo sweet potato (variety) n. maapuu n. maalɨɨ sweet potato (white) n. `gooree sweetie n. `apii sweet-smelling adj. namtii swell vi. goonam swell (out) vi. bɨɨnam swiftly vs:adv. -daa swim vie. `jaanam swim upstream vi. `jaacaa swing vi. loonam vt. `rəənam vi. `rəənam vt. ləənam n. taloo-`baaboo vi. `bɨnam survey vt. tuunam survive vi. turnam Sus scrofa n. horə suspend vt. tennam vt. `rəənam vt. pagnam suspended vi. `rəənam sustenance n. donam-tɨɨnam swallow vt. `ɲomnam n. akər-doomər swallow up vt. `goolup swamp n. hijaa swarm vi. paanam vi. `paanam n. `apum swing arm vt. kuunam swipe vt. pennam (2) Switch-subject suffix vs:val. -`mo swollen vs:adv. -jin sword n. `roksi symbol n. `akor symbol (result) vs:adv. -`rək sympathy n. ayaa swat vt. `cɨɨkə sway vi. `rəənam vi. `yəənam vi. `yemnam sweat n. aɨr vi. `ɨrnam 423 taboo teach T taboo n. arə tadpole n. `tajuu Tai(podia) name. Taii tail n. `ɲebuu n. `ɲobuu - t vt. `menree tall adj. `ahoo adj. `ayar tamper vt. `monam tangled adj:expr. `akin-`arin vi. kərnam tail (of fish) n. `ɲolap tail joint n. `ɲoŋər tailbone n. kədər tailfin n. `həəpɨr tailless adj. `ɲotuu adj. `kootuu tangly vs:advsr. -cəə...bəə tapioca (variety) n. iŋin-takee n. rəɲək n. iŋin tapioca grove n. `ŋinluu target vt. daanam taro n. arum taro (variety) n. `eɲə initiative taro (wild) n. `ɲerɨk task n. `rɨsa n. ager take vs:val. -gə vt. `laanam take after vt. gərɨk take an vi. `rɨkok-`meŋkok take apart vt. `heenam take away (from someone) vt. `laarek taste vt. rokaa vt. dokaa take care vt. ɲitɨɨ-homen take care of vt. `honam vt. pagnam tasteless adj. `harcek taunt vt. `mennek vt. `mennek take turns vs:advs. -`ko...-pek take up vt. `rɨhik vs:adv. -hik tea n. `haa tea (black) n. aalɨɨ tea (plain) n. `aalok tea (red) n. aalɨɨ tea (white) n. aapuu tea leaf n. `aanə tea leaves (used) n. `aaruk take up positions vi. cənam takin n. bembo talk vi. `mennam vte. jabnam talk down (to someone) teach vt. potom 424 team there (far away, downward) vt. potom vt. `mentom vt. `mentom vt. `ritom n. `imbə-koorə n. tabin-`koorin terrain n. mooko-`isi terrified adj. `hoŋak terrorist n. ɲilo-hodoo testicles n. ɨttum thank you int. `əkkə-jaa that (downward) dem. `bəə that (far away, same level) dem. `aəə that (just mentioned) dem. `əgə that (nearer to you than to me) dem. `əgə team n. apar tear vt. `pennam (2) vt. `jennam vt. ŋinnam n. ɲɨglaa (2) tear in two vt. `pettuu tear into many pieces vt. `pecci tease vt. `mennek vt. `mennek teeny adj. aɲ`ɲii adjs:rcom. -yaa...-caa that (person) dem. `bɨəpə that (same level) dem. `aa that (upward) dem. `təə that (very far away, same level) dem. `aɨɨ tell vie. əmnam tell (a story) vt. ɨɨnam ten numr. -rɨɨ n:num. ɨrɨɨ ten times n:time. lərɨɨ tend vt. oonam tender adj:expr. `jɨɨr-`joor adj. `jɨɨr adj. `rəɲak that sort pro. `əkə-`pakə pro. `əmbə-pambə that sort (downward) dem. `bəkə that sort (just mentioned) dem. `əkə that sort (nearer to you) dem. `əkə that sort (upward) dem. `təkə the art. ə theme n. agom-ai themselves n:qual. aɨɨ-aɨɨ then cnj. okkə cnj. əmnamə dem.pos. `ogo tendon (ankle) n. `ləo tendril n. amaa tendril (of cane) n. maamo tens place n:clfq. acam tense (inner muscles) vi. haanam tentacle (of an octopus) n. moomii tenth month n:time. pɨraa terminus vs:nzr. `humtuu termite (variety) n. `taaŋin n. tabin there (downward) dem.pos. `bolo there (far away, downward) dem.pos. `bollo 425 there (far away, same level) throw (something heavy) there there (far (far away, same level) dem. `həkə dem.pos. al`loo this year n:time. `hɨɲɨɨ upward) thorn n. tao thorn (huge) n. taɲum-ɲuŋkoo-podoo away, dem.pos. `tollo there (nearer to you than me) dem.pos. `ogo there (same level) dem.pos. `alo there (upward) dem.pos. `tolo there (very far away, same level) dem.pos. a`luu those (just mentioned) dem. `əkə those (near you) dem. `əkə thought n. məənam thousand n:num. `lɨɨrɨɨ n:num. `hajar there (very far, upward) dem.pos. `toluu thrd month n:time. lumii thread vt. riinam n. nətuu these (nearer to me than to you or currently being discussed) dem. `həkə thread (a shuttle) vt. `pinnam (2) three adj. aum numr. -um n:num. aum they (dl.) pro. `buɲi they (pl.) pro. `bulu thick adj. `jɨɨcam thin vt. `piinam vi. `kuunam three days ago n:time. `keŋkəloo three days hence n:time. `rorə three nights ago n:time. `keŋkəyo three years ago n:time. `keŋkəɲɨɨ three years hence n:time. `ɲɨɨten thresh vt. hɨgnam thrice n:time. ləum throat n. `lɨɨgoo throatpipe n. `dopuk-`lɨɨgoo throng n. ɲitɨɨ through (a hole) vs:adv. -`pek throw (disc) vt. `təbnam throw (overhand) vte. naanam throw (sidearm) vt. `lənam throw (something heavy) thin (cloth) adj. `bocor thing n. `yaraa think vt. məənam vt. məənam third maternal uncle n:kin. kɨdəə thirsty adj. `tɨɨlɨɨ this dem. `hi this evening n:time. `hɨrum this morning n:time. `hɨro this one (nearer to me than to you or currently being discussed) dem. `hɨgɨ this sort (nearer to me than to you or currently being discussed) 426 throw (spear) to (same level) vt. gənam times pos. `bə tin n. `pətup n. tamə throw (spear) vt. cinnam (2) throw (underhand) vt. ərnam throw away vt. `əpak throw into vt. `naalɨk vt. `naabuk tinea n. `tamor tingly (flavour) adj. moomoo tinker vs:advsr. -`dam...-`ram tiny adjs:rcom. -yaa...-caa adj. aɲ`ɲii thrust (pelvis) vt. `kərnam thumb n. cəədaa n. `cəənə n. `lagnə tiny amount n. aɲɲii-cakkoo tip n. puutuu n. potii thunder n. doogum v:c.arg. gumnam thus cnj. `əmlaa thwarted (of plot) vi. `pinraa Tibetan n. ɲimek tick (flat) n. horə-tasi tick (round) n. `hodum-talii tie vt. puunam tie up vt. ognam vt. leenam vt. rɨɨnam tip (of tail) n. `ɲotup tip (over) vi. kubnam tip (pole) n. `miirii tiptoe vi. `jinnam (1) tired adj. adɨr to pos. lo pros. -`əp pos. `bə to (do some hypothetical activity) vs:nzr2. `bə tiger n. homen-`ɲotə n. `ɲotə n. `taɲo n. `hoɲo to (do something) vs:nf. -`lapə to (downward) dem.pos. `bolo to to to (far (far (far away, away, away, downward) same level) dem.pos. `bollo dem.pos. al`loo tiger den n. homen-menruu tiger skin n. `ɲopin n. `menpin tight adj. `adak tightly vs:adv. -kəə time vs:nzr. -dɨ vs:nzr. -rəp n:time. `dɨɲɨɨ upward) dem.pos. `tollo to (in order to) pos. `bə to (nearer to you than me) dem.pos. `ogo timepiece n. goorii to (same level) dem.pos. `alo 427 to (the point that) toss to (the point that) pos. `bə to (upward) dem.pos. `tolo to (very far away, same level) dem.pos. a`luu tongue n. aro tonight n:time. `hɨrum n:time. `hoo tonsils n. `roo-jeɲjen far, upward) too pcl. `cin too (much) vs:adv. -ŋek vs:adv. -ben adjs:rcom. -`boo to (very dem.pos. `toluu to her/him pro. `bɨəpə to him/her pro. `bɨəpə to me pro. `ŋopə to oneself vs:val. -hi to the point that pos. `gobə to the side vs:adv. -yəə to you pro. `nop tobacco n. magoo n. `mayum n. `dumə tooth n. iijuu n. aii tooth (front) n. iijuu tooth decay n. tacɨɨ-donam toothless adj. iituu top n:rel. `taayoo topic n. agom-ai Topic marker art. ə topknot n. `dumpə topple vt. `yəənam vi. `yəənam tobacco leaf n. `mabor today n:time. `hiloo toe n. `ləcəə toe (big) n. `lənə toenail n. `ləhin toes n. `ləpum together vs:val. -bam n:qual. `ləken vs:adv. -pom adv. `ləken topple (and cause contents to spill out) vs:adv. -too topple (of tree) vi. `ŋurnam Tor putitora n. tadoo Tor tor n. ŋoco torch n. `məro n. `məor `bə toilet n. `eeko n. `hɨɨko torso n. ɨɨpoo torso (corner) n. aek-cərəə tortoise n. kəhuu n. `raakop tolerate vs:advs. -`lɨɨ...-pak tomato n. `tumpə-lukə tomorrow n:time. `alloo ton n. `həɲəm tongs n. koohap torture vt. `morik vs:adv. -`rik toss vt. `lənam 428 toss (liquid) tree (variety) vt. ərnam trap (using stone slab trap) toss (liquid) vt. cognam toss over (the shoulder) vt. ərnam touch vt. tɨnam vt. `mogəə vs:val. -`gəə vi. gonam trap (variety) n. `lɨɨpum n. tapii-tao-minnam n. `rəəpəə n. rɨɨlen n. `komgo n. `hiree n. maamo-`ɨdɨr n. hipə n. `maadɨɨ (1) toward vs:adv. -aa toward (downward) dem.pos. `bolo toward (far away, downward) dem.pos. `bollo toward (far away, same level) dem.pos. al`loo trap (variety, stone slab) n. odo treadmill n. `juggəə treasure n. `ain treat as taboo vt. arə tree n. `hɨɨbo n. `hɨɨnə-`hɨɨbo n. `hɨɨnə toward (far away, upward) dem.pos. `tollo toward (nearer to you than me) dem.pos. `ogo toward (same level) dem.pos. `alo toward (upward) dem.pos. `tolo toward (very far away, same level) dem.pos. a`luu tree (fruit-bearing) n. `hɨɨhee-rabee tree (juvenile) n. `hɨɨdii tree (variety) n. `hɨɨləə n. `hɨɨjo n. `gɨɨlɨɨ n. `takuk n. `dərgee n. `hɨɨl-baabo n. `tayɨr n. `beɲjo n. `hɨɨlok n. `hɨɨji n. `horgok n. naptuu n. kukcoo-`looloo n. `agraa n. riiraa n. acaa-`kayaa toward (very far, upward) dem.pos. `toluu toy n. `amen track vt. hɨgnam trail (made by an animal) n. `bəpaa trajectory n. `tentəə trance vi. `runam transgressing adj. `yaloo Translative pos. `bə transplant vt. `lənam transport vt. `giinam trap (small animal) n. goorəə n. ujuu 429 tree fern twitch (arm) n. `yaduk n. beɲji n. oɲor n. eɲci n. `campak trust vs:adv. -tin truth n. `jijjaa try vs:adv. -kaa tug vt. tɨgnam vt. `gɨrnam vt. `punam vt. həənam n. `hɨɨlum n. nahor n. burii n. `hɨɨcɨr n. gaalɨɨ tug up vt. `pucaa tumble vi. `daanam tunic n. lalɨk n. `jepə tree fern n. taci n. ərək-taɲi tree fern (variety) n. `rugdaa treetop n. `miirii n. `hɨɨbo tunic (black) n. `lɨkkə tunic (variety) n. `bopo n. `jebo tremble adj. paden trick vt. kubnam trickle vi. biinam trill vt. bennam (2) tripod (for cooking) n. `lɨɨcɨk tripwire n. `juumak troubled adj. alik trough n. `kogbar trousers n. loŋpən n. patəlu turn (head) vt. bərnam turn out (that) pcl. `ɲii turtle n. `raakop n. kəhuu tusk (of an elephant) n. `tərəə twang vt. bennam (2) twelfth month n:time. `ratə twice n:time. `ləɲi twig n. `koocək twist vi. əgnam vt. kərnam vt. kəlek vi. kənam vt. jərnam trudge vt. `gɨnam vt. hɨɨnam truly pcl. `jaa trunk n. `anə n. `agnə twist off vt. nennam (2) twisted vi. kərnam twisted (result) vs:adv. -kər twitch (arm) vt. lagden vi. lagden trunk (of a tree, e.g.) n:clf. apoo trunk (of an elephant) n. moomii trunk (of the body) n. ɨɨpoo trunk road n. `bənə 430 twitch (leg) undo twitch (leg) vi. `ləden vt. `ləden two nights ago n:time. `keɲyo two years ago n:time. `keɲɲɨɨ type n:clf. `abaa n:qual. `nəgɨɨ two n:num. `aɲi adj. `aɲi numr. -`ɲi two days ago n:time. `kenloo U ugly adj. `kaanek adj. `kaanek - u unclear vs:advsr. -`bək...-`rək uncle-in-law n:kin. `kɨtə uncomfortable adj. adɨr adj. `rənek adj. rəyaa uh-huh int. `əə int. um uh-uh int. ə-hə! ultimate adj. `pɨhɨr ultimately vs:asp. -ku umbilical cord n. kiinə-abuu umbrella n. satii umbrella hat n. boodə umm int. məraa unambiguous adj:expr. `apək-`arək unambiguously vs:adv. -`pək uncle (maternal) n:kin. akə uncle (maternal, eldest) n:kin. `kɨtə uncle (maternal, second) n:kin. kɨroo unconsciously vs:adv. -`mo uncontrollably vs:adv. -`mo vs:adv. -tɨk uncover vt. `pookok under n:rel. compɨk vs:adv. -ɨk underarm n. kuurɨɨ undergo vt. `paanam underknee n. `ləgap understand vt. `tabək understand vt. `tacen (what (what one one hears) sees) uncle (maternal, third) n:kin. kɨdəə uncle (maternal, younger) n:kin. kii uncle (paternal) n:kin. `ɲaaɲaa understand vt. `kaacen underworld n. `uii-mooraa undo vt. `heenam 431 undone utterly undone vi. `heenam vi. bəgnam pos. `gobə up to (a point) pos. lobə upon vs:adv. -təm upper side n:rel. tuudum upper village n. `cɨɨdum uppercut vt. `cagnam upright vs:adv. -rəp adj. akup undress vt. `pinnam (2) undulating adj. `kogdɨr-`kogbar uneasy vi. məəram adj. aɨk adj. alik adj. adɨr uneven terrain n. aruu-agom unexpectedly pcl. `laaka unfold vt. `taapar ungenerous vs:adv. -`bin uniform adj. `təərum vs:adv. -`rɨɨ uproot vt. `puunam vt. `bunam upside down vs:adv. -kup upward vs:adv. -duu upward (to goal) vs:adv. -`caa urinal n. `hɨɨko urinate vt. hɨɨnam v:inc.arg.O. `yesi-hɨɨnam uniformly vs:adv. -`rɨɨ vs:adv. -rum unison n. `baaken united n:qual. `ləken unmade vi. `heenam unmake vt. `heenam unobstructed adj. `moomen unpleasant adj. `rənek vs:adv. -`nek urine n. `yasi used to (hearing) vt. taŋoo useless adj. `əmum vi. yaanam useless useless (person) (woman) adj. `maŋaa-`maraa adj. `yaŋaa-`yaraa unravel vt. `heenam unresponsive adj. `ɨlɨɨ-`aapuk unspool vt. `hornam unstuck vi. bəgnam untie vt. `harnam vi. taanam vi. `harnam u-shaped vs:adv. -`kuu using vs:val. -naa pos. `lokə usurp vs:adv. -rek uterus n. neppə utter vt. barnam utterly adjs:der. -totii pcl. `ruu until pos. `gobə up (result) vs:adv. -rəp up to pos. `bə 432 vacuum vomit V vacuum vt. `muunam vagina n. ɨttə n. `paapii - v via (downward) dem.pos. `bolo `kə pos. `bokə via (here) dem.pos. `hokə via (nearer dem. `okə vaginal fluid n. tɨɨlaa valley n. `komam n. `peŋkoo n. `peɲcəp n. `moodii-`peŋkoo to you than me) via (same level) pos. `akə dem.pos. `alokə via (upward) pos. `tokə dem.pos. `tolo valuable adj. `ajek-apaa value adj:expr. adɨk-ahɨk vapour n. `doomuk Varanus n. `horkek variety n:clf. `abaa n:qual. `nəgɨɨ `kə vibrate vs:adv. -den vicinity n. `nəci vigorous vi. jənam village n:poet. doaa n. dooluu various adj. `nəgɨɨ vegetable n. ɨɨjɨɨ-oo n. oo village headman n. gam vine n. tarə-tamaa vinegar fly n. tahuu-tayaa Vip n. ɲigom viper n. bərtaa virgin n. `jɨrlee virgin forest n. `hɨɨluu-raaluu virus n. cilii-ramlii n. hɨgyaa-taakaa vegetable (green) n. `omɨɨ vegetable marrow n. `patum vehicle n. gaarii vein n. arɨɨ-amaa n. apɨr verb n. `rɨnam-`gomcɨr verge adj. `akcɨk version n:clf. `abaa very adv. maaji adjs:der. -totii visage n. `ɲipə vital vi. jənam void n. `jimii volleyball n. cɨɨkaa hinam volume n:clf. adap vomit vt. banam very (much) adj. `majjaa adj. maaji via pos. `gə 433 vote way (of talking) vote vt. tubnam vulture n. `ugin W waft vi. yɨɨnam wail vi. `aanam waist n. ɨɨpoo waistlet (for baby) n. bəyɨɨ wait vt. tonam wait for vt. toraa wait in vain vt. `toraa walk vie. innam (1) walk (in pointed manner) vt. cinnam - w wash (body) vt. hunam wash (clothing) vt. rɨgnam wash (hands) vt. laksuk wash (surface) vt. kagnam wasp (variety) n. ilo-gaapoo n. `gaapuu n. ilo n. `idum waste vt. `ŋaanam vi. `ŋaanam vi. `ŋaanam (2) walking stick n. `baŋii wall n. cɨkci wall (an area) vt. cənam wander vi. baggoo want vs:adv. -`lɨɨlɨɨ vs:adv. -`lɨɨ vt. lagi vt. məənam watch vt. kaanam n. goorii watch out! int. yəcu water n. `isi water (clean) n. `hidor water (dirty) n. `higik water (from the eyes) n. `ɲɨksi-ɲɨglaa war n. `ɲimak war dance n. `pajuk ward (off) vt. beenam warm adj. `ago vt. amnam water (hot) n. `higo waterfall n. `hidɨɨ n. `poodɨɨ wave vt. yabnam wave (hand) vt. gaayap wavy adj. pakər adj. pagər warm (oneself) vi. iinam warm (result) vs:adv. -`go warning n. tootin warrior n. `ɲigaa was cop. ee wax (ear) n. `ruupuk way n. bədaa way (of talking) n. `meŋkor 434 way (to field) while way (to field) n. rɨglam way back when adv. `məroo-`kenloo adj. `allɨɨ n. kəbaa-kombo well-seasoned vi. tiinam west n. dooɲi-`aako n:rel. aagoo way of vs:nzr. -kor waypoint vs:nzr. -lam we (dl ) pro. `ŋuɲi we (pl.) pro. `ŋunu weakly adjs:rcom. -yaa...-caa wealth n. `ain-`murkoo wear vt. gərɨk wear out vs:adv. -`yɨɨ wear out (clothing) vi. `gəyɨɨ wearables n. `ejə-`orok weather n. taləə weave vt. cumnam vt. `peenam wet vi. `juujaa vi. `juunam adj. `juujaa-rəyaa wetten vt. `juunam whack vt. hinnam (2) what pro:int. `yoo what (sort) pro:int. `yooyoo what thing pro:int. `yoogo what time (in the future) pro:int. `yaddəm what?!? int. ooi! whatever int. məraa bamboo) wheel n. pəgoo when vs:nf. -boolo when (in the future) pro:int. `yaddəm weave (flattened vt. cənam weave (large) vt. ragnam wedding (large) n. `kartə wedding (ordinary) n. `karmɨk wedge vt. koonam wedged adj. `hɨɨcəp wedged (result) vs:adv. -`cəp weed v:c.arg. `ɨgnam n. ɨɨ when (x, y) pos. `əm where pro:int. `yoolo where from pro:int. `yoolokə whether pcl. -`dakkom whew int. `akcɨɨ whew! int. acci expr. hoe! weed pile n. `ɨɨpum weep vi. kabnam weigh vt. kuunam weigh on vt. mennam (1) weight (stone) n. `lɨoo well nce. kombo which pro:int. `yoolokə while vs:adv. -ŋoohi vs:nf. -kopə adv. `rəmo vs:nf. -`mopaala `paala 435 whine wipe out whine vt. dɨgnam whippersnapper n. apaa whisper expr. `bis-`bos whistle vt. `husi v:c.arg. `sinam wife’s sister’s husband n:kin. bərbo wifey n. `omee-ɲimə wild (deer) adj. `cərlee wild animal n. hottum-horə wild pig n. horə wild pig (male) n. irom wildcat (large) n. holəə wildcat (small) n. `taso wildcats n. hoin-holəə will vs:mod. -`lapə partridge thrush vt. ruunam vs:asp. -rə n. `aruu white adj. puuluu v:c.arg. puunam adj. `mɨrpuu adj. yapuu white (of an egg) n. pɨdin white hair n. dumpuu whitecheecked n. `pɨmuu hill laughing whitecrested n. `puruu willfully vs:adv. -dum willingly vs:adv. -təə wilted adj. `pakup win vs:adv. -`gum vt. `rɨgum whitened adj. `mɨrpuu whittle vt. `ginnam (2) vt. nagnam vt. ɨnam vt. ganam wind n. doorə vt. gərnam who pro:int. `yəə whoa! int. ə-həə! int. ab`bɨɨ! winded vi. `ŋanam windpipe n. `dopuk-`lɨɨgoo wing n. alap wink vt. ɲɨgyap winnow vt. `kabnam winter n:time. dɨcɨɨ n:time. `denə whom pro:int. `yəəm whoops! int. əət! whose pro:int. `yəək widow n. tumbo widower n. tumbo wife n:kin. ɲimə wife (brother’s, last) n:kin. `nəii wife’s brother n:kin. `rɨgo wife’s brother’s wife n:kin. `ayo wife’s sister n:kin. `rɨgnə wipe vt. pennam (2) vt. `ginnam (2) wipe (with tool) vt. nərnam wipe away vt. `peppak wipe out vi. `daanam 436 wipe out (kill) write wipe out (kill) vt. `moroo wire n. `hoojen wise person n. `ɲiko wish n. `aruu with pos. `lokə pos. `bə pos. `lokə n. agom n. `gombəə words n. agom-ai work vt. `rɨnam n. ager adj. `canam work (properly) vt. `jubnam work party n. rɨglam world n. cɨɨgoo-doogoo nce. doogoo wither vs:adv. -`yɨɨ vi. `ɲanam vi. `rugnam vi. `hennam (1) worn-out adj. `rəɲak worsen vs:adv. -`yaa would vs:asp. -rə wound n. uun-tarə n. uun n. unə wither (result) vs:adv. -`hen withered adj:expr. akək-arək within pos. `bə wok n. `joŋkaa n. mookaa woman n:poet. ɲindum woman (mature) n. aɲi-abo woman (middle-aged) n. `anə-ɲaməə wow! int. `adɨɨ! int. addə! int. annəə! wrap vt. `purbum vt. `humnam vt. purnam woman (young) n. `jɨrtə women’s balcony n. ɲimə-`koodaa wrap (into packet) vt. `pohum wrap (packet) vt. `pucəə wreathed hornbill n. `gaaree wreck vt. `moyaa wrestle vt. nunam wrestling vt. nukaa hinam vt. numin vt. ennam women’s doorway n. ɲimə-`rabgo wonder pcl. `dɨɨ wood n. `ɨhɨɨ n. `hɨɨpə wood (rotten) n. `hɨɨyaa wood splinter n. acək-parək woodpecker (variety) n. `kaabee n. `kaacer-`kaabee hinam (2) wring vt. ejjum wrinkle vi. tinnam (2) wrist n. lagrɨɨ-lagaa write vt. ennam (2) wool (variety) n. kəbə word n. `gomcɨr 437 yam (variety) yuck! Y yam (variety) n. maalɨɨ n. maapuu - y int. `bosso yolk n. `pɨmɨr Yomgo name. Yoŋgo you (dl.) pro. `nuɲi you (pl.) pro. `nunu you (sg. obj.) pro. `nom you (sg.) pro. no you’ll see pcl. `laa pcl. -`lapə yank vt. `bərnam yard n. `neekoo yawn vi. goŋkə-`aajin n. goŋkə-`aajin year n:time. `aɲɨɨ n:time. `dɨɲɨɨ year (last) n:time. `məɲɨɨ year (this) n:time. `hɨɲɨɨ year after next n:time. `ɲɨə yearn (after) vt. məəgaa yell vi. `kunam vi. rumnam young adj. ammee young (male) adj. yaamee adj. yaapaa younger brother n:kin. `abɨr-yaamee yell (at someone) vt. `gaanam yellow adj. nogee adj. `yaji younger maternal aunt n:kin. `motə n:kin. moii younger maternal uncle n:kin. kii younger sibling n:kin. `abɨr younger siblings n. aci-`abɨr younger sister n:kin. `abɨr-`ɲijɨr youngster n. `omee your (sg.) pro. `nokə yourself n:qual. aɨɨ pro. `nəə yellowjacket n. beree yeoman n. meetor n. yaamee-meetor yes int. um int. `əə yes (that’s correct) pos. `əm yesterday n:time. `məroo yesterday morning n:time. `mər yet adv. kambəə vs:nf. -`laacin vs:asp. -ku vs:nf. -gərə yourselves n:qual. aɨɨ-aɨɨ youth n:poet. `gɨcaa youth (male) n. yaamee n. yaamee yikes! int. boc`co yuck! int. iɲɲa! 438 Zanthoxylum zoom Z - z Zanthoxylum n. oɲor zenith n. `dumrɨk zig-zagged adj. `təguu-təyəə Zingiber officinale n. takee zip vi. `dəbnam zoom vi. `dəbnam 439 Appendix: Galo Lexicon and Grammar Numerals `aken `aɲii aum appii aŋŋo akkə `kanə `piinə `keŋŋaa `ɨrɨɨ `ɨrɨɨ gola `aken `ɨrɨɨ gola `aɲi … `camɲi `camɲi gola `aken `camɲi gola `aɲi … camum campii … acam `kanə acam `piinə acam `keŋŋaa acam `keŋŋaa gola `aken … camrɨɨ camrɨɨ gola `aken … camrɨɨ gola camum gola `aken … camrɨɨ `aɲi 1 ‘one’ ‘two’ ‘three’ ‘four’ ‘five’ ‘six’ ‘seven’ ‘eight’ ‘nine’ ‘ten’ ‘eleven’ ‘twelve’ … ‘twenty’ ‘twenty-one’ ‘twenty-two’ … ‘thirty’ ‘forty’ … ‘seventy’ ‘eighty’ ‘ninety’ ‘ninety-one’ … ‘one hundred’ 1 ‘one hundred and one’ … ‘one hundred and thirty-one’ … ‘two hundred’ In NW Galo alɨɨ. 445 camrɨɨ aum `ajar `ajar gola camrɨɨ `aɲi gola camum gola `aken `ajar campii gola `aken ... ‘three hundred’ ‘one thousand’ 2 ‘one thousand two hundred and thirty-one’ ‘forty-one thousand’ (41,000) Ordinal Numbers `ləken `ləɲi ləum ləppii ləŋŋo ləkkə lərɨɨ ‘once’ ‘twice’ ‘thrice’ ‘four times’ ‘five times’ ‘six times’ ‘ten times’ Units of Time Days kenjur-aloo kenkur-aloo `kendaloo `keŋkəloo `kenlòo `məroo `hiloo `allo `roo ~ roə `rorə `roten `tenee `tenkur ‘six days ago’ ‘five days ago’ ‘four days ago’ ‘three days ago’ ‘two days ago’ ‘yesterday’ ‘today’ ‘tomorrow’ ‘two days hence’ ‘three days hence’ ‘four days hence’ ‘five days hence’ ‘six days hence’ 2 In NW Galo lɨɨrɨɨ. 446 Years kenjur kenkur `kendaɲɨɨ `keŋkəɲɨɨ `kenɲɨɨ `məɲɨɨ `hɨɲɨɨ `luuɲɨɨ `ɲɨə `ɲɨɨrə `ɲɨɨten `tenee `tenkur ‘six years ago’ ‘five years ago’ ‘four years ago’ ‘three years ago’ ‘two years ago’ ‘last year’ ‘this year’ ‘next year’ ‘two years hence’ ‘three years hence’ ‘four years hence’ ‘five years hence’ ‘six years hence’ Months of the year The traditional Galo calendar is a lunar calendar, and corresponds to moon cycles and phases. Traditionally, it did not match the international calendar, although it is starting to be used this way. As a result, there is a certain amount of uncertainty and variation from village to village and person to person. This represents one possible account of the Galo calendar, although there are certainly many others: deecɨɨ `aglo lumii lukɨɨ lucɨr `ilo `tenlo `hɨo `hɨɨtə pɨraa lubɨɨ `ratəə `ralɨɨ First moon (January) Second moon (February) Third moon (March) Fourth moon (April) Fifth moon (May) Sixth moon (June) Seventh moon (July) Eighth moon (August) Ninth moon (September) Tenth moon (October) Eleventh moon (November) Twelfth moon (December) Thirteenth moon (December-ish) 447 Classifiers Galo has sortal and mensural classifiers. Classifiers are common in East Asian languages, but are not usually found in Indo-European languages (although they are found in Assamese). Classifiers help in counting, measuring and referring-to specific objects and quantities. In Galo, classifiers occur both as words, such as abor ‘sheet of’, and as roots which are compounded to certain numeral and adjective roots, such as `bor-ɲi ‘two sheets of’ and `bor-tə ‘large, of a sheet-like thing’. Some common sortal classifiers are: Word (a)hoo (a)poo (a)daa `(a)rɨɨ (a)paa (a)buu (a)bor `(a)tam `(a)cɨr `(a)pə `(a)buk (a)bə (a)cəə `(a)dor Meaning ‘length of’ ‘trunk of’ ‘stick of’ ‘staff of’ ‘baton of’ ‘tube of’ ‘sheet of’ ‘side of’ ‘grain of’ ‘ball of’ ‘pod of’ ‘edge of’ ‘finger of’ ‘body of’ Classifies long, thin, potentially flexible things (cigarettes, lengths of rope) things with length and rotundity (fat torsos/stomachs, fat fingers) rigidly sticklike things (branches, twigs) staffs; upright things (trees, stands of trees, staffs of bananas) oblong things with some thickness (bananas, eggplants, packs of cigarettes) pipes or tubes, especially bamboo; rivers sheets; spread-out things (papers, pillows) flat-sided objects (walls, doors, floors) small, grainlike things (pebbles, grains of rice, peas, insects, drops of water) round or egglike things, or things that lay eggs (eggs, apples, balls, birds) pods; bulging sections of a whole (pods of a jackfruit, sections of orange, halves of a vagina) sides; edges (of a container, of a computer screen) fingers; bodies with fingers (lengths of ginger rhizome, rootstocks) high animals (all mammals, plus large lizards and frogs (as well as humans, in jocular sense), but not small reptiles, snakes, fish, birds or insects) living plants/plant stems, fish groups/flocks/herds of animate entities (cattle, dogs, chickens, people…) types/varieties `(a)nə (a)tɨɨ/ (a)tɨr (a)baa ‘stem of’ ‘group of’ ‘variety of’ 448 (a)gom `(a)baa (a)dap `(a)bar `(a)ɲɨɨ (a)loo (a)rum `(a)yup ‘word of’ ‘rendition of’ ‘volume of’ ‘piece of’ ‘year of’ ‘day of’ ‘evening of’ ‘night of’ vocalizations/vocalizers (mouths, words, points/topics) songs things which occur in levels or volumes (books, grades/classes, levels in a course) treasures (units of currency, brass platters, ornaments) years days evenings/nights (non-day periods of time) night cycles (full dusk-dawn cycles) Some common mensural classifiers are: Word (a)cam (a)hu (a)tik `(a)ro (a)rɨk `(a)yum (a)ok `(a)um `(a)pum `(a)tum `(a)lum `(i)gin (ə)bar `(u)juk (a)pee (a)par (a)par Meaning ‘ten of’ ‘four of’ ‘bushel of’ ‘bundle of (poles)’ ‘bundle of (sticks)’ ‘handful of’ ‘heaping handful of’ ‘mouthful of’ ‘heap of’ ‘clump of’ ‘cluster of’ ‘basket of’ ‘basket of’ ‘ladleful of’ ‘bunch of’ ‘team of’ ‘grinding of’ Classifies/Quantifies any set of individuals in groups of ten any set of individuals in groups of four bushels of large-sized leaves (40 by standard) bundles of staffs or poles (40 by standard) bundles of sticks (40 by standard) handfuls of any substance heaping handfuls of any substance mouthfuls, especially of liquid heaps of any substance or individual clumps of any substance of individual (such as packed-together soil) clusters of individuals tight conical basketfuls of any substance loose conical basketfuls of any substance ladlefuls of any substance bunches of sticklike things, such as bananas teams; work groups; divisions of labour grinding’s worth; set of paddy or other grain, viewed as the amount ground at one time in a mortar any length/distance as measured by paces any length/distance as measured by handspans any length/distance as measured by forearm spans (a)kor (a)gop (a)du ‘pace of’ ‘handspan of’ ‘forearm span of’ 449 (a)jek (a)tak (a)tək (a)duu `(a)təə ‘slice of’ ‘fragment/side of’ ‘stretch of’ ‘section of (bamboo)’ ‘full section of (bamboo)’ slices of any substance or individual flat sided entities which are cut- or brokenoff sections of a whole, such as betelnut lengths/stretches of a long thing, such as wood chips cut from a pole, or stretches of road or river sections of bamboo of any size full sections of bamboo (including knot) Verb suffixes Galo has a huge range of derivational verb suffixes (vs:adv), which are combined with verb roots to form words with complex and versatile meanings. Many of these meanings translate into languages like English and Assamese as adverbs; however, in Galo they are not “words”, but are rather a part of a larger, more complex word. Because of the huge size and versatility of the Galo system of verb suffixes, Galo can easily express meanings which are very difficult to express in other languages. For example, consider the predicate derivation `-men ‘do something playfully’: Verb innam donam `rɨnam `onam kaanam japnam iinam `lənam Meaning ‘go’ ‘eat’ ‘do’ ‘fall’ ‘look’ ‘talk’ ‘extend hand’ ‘plant something’ Suffix -`men -`men -`men -`men -`men -`men -`men -`men Word `inmen `domen `rɨmen `omen `kaamen `jabmen `iimen `ləmen Meaning ‘stroll’ ‘snack’ ‘do playfully’ ‘fall playfully’ ‘take a look’ ‘chat’ ‘extend a hand in play’ ‘plant something just for fun, to see what will happen’ `harmen ‘ruffhouse’ `duumen ‘have a seat; sit around’ harnam ‘play’ `duunam ‘sit’ (etc….) -`men -`men 450 Hundreds of words like this can be easily formed in Galo. Notice how simple and direct the Galo expressions are, and how roundabout the closest English translations are! Sometimes, derivational verb suffixes can be “doubled up” to convey even more elaborate meanings. In some cases, both of the “doubled” suffixes have meaning, while in other cases only the first has meaning, while the second is simply a rhyming syllable with no independent meaning. For example, in `menken `menpaa maa ‘it’s frustratingly difficult to say’, both predicate derivations -`ken and -`paa have independent meanings ‘easy/good’ and ‘get/manage’, respectively. But, in `tagmɨk `tagmak ‘smash into a million pieces’, only -`mɨk has meaning, as in `rɨmɨk ‘do carefully/minutely’; -`mak has no meaning, but is only included to give a more expressive sense. Spatial reference When talking about the motion or location of something in Galo, it is important to consider a number of factors. Is the thing closer to the speaker or the addressee? Is the thing visible? If so, is it higher, lower, or on the same level? If not, is it to the north, to the south or to the east/west? If it is near a river, is it upriver, downriver, or across/away from the river? If talking about a human being or group, is it at or moving to or away from its own home village, or is it at or moving to or away from the speaker’s home village? Motion verbs Verb `caanam iinam Meaning ‘to ascend’ Describes motion upward/upriver, to the north, or to a home located upward of one’s own home ‘to descend’ motion downward/downriver, to the south, or to a home located downward of one’s own home ‘to come’ motion on the same level, not along a river course, to the east or west, or to one’s own home ‘to go’ general motion, especially motion away from one’s own home or in an unspecified direction aanam innam 451 aanam `nennam ‘to enter’ ‘to exit’ motion into a space or into one’s home or village motion out of a space or outside of one’s home or village and into the outside world Demonstratives and postpositions Near Speaker Simple Individuative Locative Ablative Semblative Manner `hi `hɨgɨ `hogo `hokə `həkə `həmbə Near Addressee əə `əgə `ogo `okə `əkə `əmbə Away, Upward `təə -`tolo `tokə `təkə `təmbə Away, Downward `bəə -`bolo `bokə `bəkə `bəmbə Away, Same Level aa -alo `akə `akə `ambə Locative existential verbs In English, to show existence and possession we use only be and have, as in: there are two people or I have a pen. In Galo, there are five different verbs, three of which also show position. When talking about existence and possession in Galo, we must consider: is the thing alive or not alive? Is it possessed by something else, or independent? Is it in sitting position, standing position, or lying position? Is it a long and thin in shape, spreadout and sheetlike in shape or voluminous and ball-like in shape? Does it have legs or not? Is it attached to something else or contained in something else or is it independent? Verb rənam kaanam `duunam Meaning ‘to live’ ‘to have’ ‘to sit’ Use actively living things of all kinds simply existing things of all kinds, possessed things living things which are temporarily staying in a place or are in sitting position, non-living things which are voluminous in shape and in sitting position living things which are in standing position, nonliving things which have legs, or long and thing things which are in a vertical position, or things which are attached to or contained inside something else `dagnam ‘to stand’ 452 doonam ‘to lie’ living things which are permanently settled in a place or are in lying position, non-living things which are flexible or sheet-like in shape, or nonliving things of any shape which are lying on a surface Relational (“Case”) Marking Relational marking shows the relationship between a noun or noun phrase and a predicate. For example, in English he hit me, the subject he is in the Nominative case, while the object me is in the Accusative case. It is incorrect to put the subject in Accusative case and the object in Nominative case: *him hit I is not a good English sentence. In Indo-European languages like English, Hindi and Assamese, the relationship between a noun and a predicate may be shown by changes in the form of the word – such as I and me – or else by case markers or adpositions (prepositions or postpositions) – such as to John. In Galo, relational marking is almost always postpositional. Case Nominative Accusative Non-agentive Locative Dative Genitive Ablative Partitive Temporal dumessive Spatial dumessive Ordinal delimitative Iterative delimitative Temporal delimitative Marker -`əm `ne lo `bə `gə `lokə gonna `gobə `lobə `naana `naabə `naako lo Example `bɨɨ pagrə. `bɨəm tukaa. ab `ne tukaa. dooluu lo ac `bə ac `gə dooluu `lokə ərək gonna `ij `gobə `hog `lobə aŋŋo `naana `ləɲ `naabə looŋo `naak lo Meaning ‘He will manage it.’ ‘Someone kicked him.’ ‘Someone kicked father.’ ‘at the village; in the village’ ‘to elder brother’ ‘elder brother’s; of elder brother’ ‘from the village’ ‘one of the pigs’ ‘up to now’ ‘up to here’ ‘fifth’ ‘second (time)’ ‘within five days’ 453 Referential marking Referential marking gives information about the way a noun is being identified or referred-to in a sentence or conversation. Usually, referential markers are called “articles”. In English, referential marking usually gives information about whether a referent is known or unknown (the man vs. a man), is individual or multiple (a man vs. some men) or is specific or general (the men versus men). In Galo, referential marking has similar, but not identical, properties. Function Non-referential Marker Example -ərək kaamaa. `is kaamaa. ə Referential, known ərək ə… `iss `ə… Referential, unknown go ərək go… `is go Meaning ‘There are no pigs.’ ‘There is no water.’ ‘(The) pig(s)…’ ‘(The) water…’ ‘a pig…’ ‘some water…’ Particles In many Asian languages, complex ideas related to a speaker’s attitude, knowledge, opinion and evidence for making a statement are expressed using very small words called “particles”. Particles usually occur either at the end of a sentence or at the end of a noun phrase. Particles do not usually occur in Indo-European languages such as English or Hindi; instead, speaker attitude is usually conveyed by intonation and knowledge or opinion is expressed using individual words or larger sentence structures. Galo has a huge range of particles, most of which can be found either at the end of a sentence or at the end of a focused noun phrase. A few examples are given below. Noun phrase particles Function Completive Additive Marker Example ku `bɨɨ ku… `cin `bɨɨ `cin… Meaning ‘he, in the end…’ ‘he too…’ 454 Contrastive Comparison Recursive Concessive Abessive Suppositional Delimitative Precisative da `den dada daram `ləə baa `ɲum `cəə `bɨɨ da… `bɨɨ `den… `bɨɨ dada… `bɨɨ daram… `ŋok aci `ləə… `bɨɨ baa… `bɨɨ `ɲum… `bɨɨ `cəə ‘but he; he, however…’ ‘he, on the other hand…’ ‘he, just like before…’ ‘even he…’ ‘oh, my elder brother…’ ‘suppose he…’ ‘only he…’ ‘exactly he…; none but he…’ Imperative particles Function Polite hortative Advisative hortative Abrupt hortative Marker `kee `kaa -k Example `jilaa `kee jit `kaa jitok! Meaning ‘please give it’ ‘you ought to give it’ ‘give it!’ Declarative particles Function Reportative Evidential Uncertainty Mirative Admonitive Counterexpective Marker `yuu `ben `pə `lakaa ne ɲoo Example `bɨɨ inkaa ku yuu `bɨɨ inkaa ku ben `bɨɨ inkaa ku `pə `bɨɨ inkaa ku `lakaa `bɨɨ inkaa ku ne `bɨɨ inkaa ku ɲoo Meaning ‘He left, it is said.’ ‘It seems he left.’ ‘He may have left.’ ‘He left, to my surprise!’ ‘He left, don’t you see!’ ‘He left, in fact.’ Temporal-Aspectual Marking In most Indo-European languages, the temporal structure of an event is described using both tense and aspect. Tense shows the time of an event in relation to the time of speaking, such as present tense, past tense or future tense. Aspect shows the way in which an event progresses over time, as progressive aspect, habitual aspect and perfect aspect. So, a sentence such as he has been there is in present perfect, and uses a mixture of present tense and perfect aspect to show that the event is finished (perfect) as of the present time of speaking. In most Asian languages, including Galo, tense marking does not occur. Instead, there is a very large and complex aspectual system. 455 Function Use Imperfective unfinished events Marker Example -`duu `bɨɨ `caaduu -doo Stative general/habitual conditions current/new state `bɨɨ `caadoo Change of State -`dak `bɨɨ `caadak Perfective Perfect finished event finished activity with ongoing effect events which began in the past and are still ongoing events which have occurred at least once in experience events which do not or did not occur events which are unreal, either because they are imagined or are predicted -to -kaa `bɨɨ `caato `bɨɨ `caakaa Continuous -`tuu `bɨɨ `caatuu Meaning ‘He is going up (he is on the way).’ ‘He goes up (on a regular basis).’ ‘He’s now going up (unlike before).’ ‘He went up (and returned).’ ‘He has gone up (and is still there).’ ‘He has gone up (and is still on the road).’ ‘He has been up (at some point).’ ‘He didn’t/ doesn’t go up.’ ‘He will/ would go up.’ Experiential perfect -bee `bɨɨ `caabee Negative -maa `bɨɨ `caamaa Irrealis -rə `bɨɨ `caarə 456 References Post, M. (2007). A Grammar of Galo. PhD Dissertation. Melbourne, La Trobe University Research Centre for Linguistic Typology. Sun, T.-S. J. (1993). A Historical-Comparative Study of the Tani Branch of TibetoBurman. PhD Dissertation. Berkeley, University of California Department of Linguistics. --- (2003). "Tani languages." In G. Thurgood and R. J. LaPolla, Eds., The SinoTibetan Languages. (Routledge Language Family Series) London/New York, Routledge: 456-466. 457